NOGRA
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O C
UCATING 
M N OF ED 2010
OCIATIO
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CITY, 
SPORT AND 
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EDUCAT
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CITY, 
SPORT AND 
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Contents
 AND EDUCATION
CITY, SPORT
 MONOGRAPH
4 Editorial
Enric Truñó
Sergio Steven N. Christina Johann 
Chiamparino Blair Ramberg Olav Koss
6 10 14 18
24 The Social Role of Sport. Implications on Local 
Sports Policy
Paul De Knop and Marc Theeboom
30 Sport and Gender Equality. Girls in Focus
Gertrud Pfi ster
40 Sport and Accessibility for All. 
Something all cities need
Enrique Rovira-Beleta Cuyás
47 Get Moving and Get in Shape, experience of the Campaign 
in Mexico City
Sonia Aguirre Garcés, José Luis Navarro Paredes and Mónica Hurtado González,
City of Mexico
50 The Granollers Cup, handball that makes a city 
Josep Maria Junqueras Pujadas, City of Granollers
53 Adji and vê: Two games that teach for life
Dakpè Sossou, City of Lokossa
55 The General State of Sports 
Nicole Dreyer and Serge Oehler, City of Strasbourg 
57 Montevideo, a Healthy City 
Gonzalo Halty, City of Montevideo 
60 Sport Inspires Me
Pedro Peres, City of Lisbon 
Experiences Articles Interviews
Editorial
On the occasion of the 11th International Congress the aim of providing support to sport for people of all 
of Educating Cities to be held in Guadalajara ages, and promoting both sport’s awareness and the 
(Mexico) with the theme “Sport, Public Policy and values it entails. 
Citizenship. Challenges for an Educating City”, the Dr. Steven N. Blair, a specialist in sports medicine 
IAEC has considered it appropriate to prepare this and physical activity from South Carolina, examines 
Monograph on City, Sport and Education. in depth the relationship between sport, physical 
The Charter of Educating Cities affirms the right to activity and health. He thinks a change in lifestyle in 
experience the educating city, which is to be understood the future is essential to alter behaviour and attitudes 
as an effective extension of the fundamental right to that will improve the health of inhabitants of the city, 
education. The city has countless opportunities for adapting the city to the needs of walkers and cyclists 
education using its resources, facilitating through its and discouraging the use of cars, and through actions 
civic dynamics the incorporation of people of all ages to provide guidelines on healthy eating and to promote 
into life-long learning. exercise. 
Cities have to establish a broad-based, transversal Christina Ramberg, Environmental Planning Manager 
and innovative educational policy, and have to include of the City of Gothenburg, reminds us of the importance 
in it all types of formal, non-formal and informal of applying sustainable principles in the organization 
education and the various cultural manifestations, of sport events: the need to make organizers aware 
sources of information and paths to discovery produced of the use of low-emission transport both for athletes 
in the city, creating the framework for people’s broad and spectators, the use of renewable energy sources in 
education and development. the sports facilities, the need to reduce the production 
The Charter expresses the commitment of the of waste and to have containers for sorting it and its 
signatory cities to all the values and principles set out later recycling. Her view is that an environmental plan 
in it. It defines itself as open to revision and should be related to the process of organizing major and minor 
extended to encompass the aspects made necessary events should be in place. 
by rapid social evolution. On this occasion, it seems In turn, the Olympic medallist and President of the 
advisable and appropriate to study in greater depth NGO Right To Play, Johann Koss, points out different 
the notion of physical activity, playing and sport as criteria to be taken into account so that local sports 
educational instruments. This is what both the Congress policies for co-operation can be a vehicle for peace, 
to be held in Guadalajara and this Monograph consider. presenting different experiences in places where there 
There is widespread theoretical agreement on a are conflicts.
worldwide scale about the role of sport, in a wide This monograph also presents three contributions 
sense. Thus, at the 63rd session of the UN General which introduce different aspects of sporting activity 
Assembly held in 2008, a resolution was passed that with the aim of making it more inclusive:
encouraged the use of sport as an instrument for the • T he social role of sport, by Paul De Knop and Marc 
promotion of education, health, development and Theeboom.
peace. The Millennium Goals to eradicate poverty • S port and gender equality, by Gertrud Pfister. 
highlight this role of sport. • S port and accessibility for all, by Enrique Rovira-
In this context, this monograph presents a number of Beleta. 
interviews dealing with various aspects and values of All authors agree on the need for the democratization 
sporting practice ranging from health to the legacy that of access to the different benefits offered by exercise 
the organization of the Olympic Games generates for a and sport, linking it to a project for a more participative 
city. and caring society. In particular, Paul De Knop and 
The Mayor of Turin, Sergio Chiamparino, reflects on Marc Theeboom, from Flanders, point out that sport 
the impact and legacy that the 2006 Winter Olympic can be a means of improving the participation and 
Games have left for his city, showing that the meaning integration of socially vulnerable groups and of reducing 
of the concept “Educating City” was present in the delinquency among young people at risk. They present 
organization and holding of the Games. He also reminds the experience of ‘neighbourhood sports’ in Flanders. 
us that, parallel with organizing the event, the city Gertrud Pfister, from Copenhagen, reminds us of the 
invested in new infrastructures and programmes with differences in participation in sporting activity according 
CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION
 MONOGRAPH
to gender as, in general, girls and women are more cultures, in all countries and in all social classes with 
sedentary than boys and men, and within the female a great diversity of manifestations and opportunities. 
population there are major differences depending •  The social impact of sport can be seen in the 
on their circumstances, including social class, ethnic marvellous opportunities to generate ways for social 
origin, religion, culture, and the place they live, which relations, inclusion and cohesion, for fostering peace, 
generates different opportunities for access to sport. and for promoting healthy lifestyles.
Enrique Rovira-Beleta, from his watchtower in •  Promoting sport that respects the environment is 
Barcelona, presents the proposal of encouraging important. In accordance with the 11th principle 
sports centres in cities and in the rural environment, of the Charter of Educating Cities: “The city must 
as centres of sociocultural and sports animation, guarantee the quality of life for all its inhabitants. 
guaranteeing access to people with different types of This requires creating a balance with its natural 
disabilities, fostering social interrelations and extending surroundings, providing the right to a healthy 
their function to that of being a place where people of environment, as well as the right to leisure, amongst 
all ages meet and where family life is conciliated. others.”
Finally, six experiences are presented with the •  The willingness of local public authorities to define 
common denominator of being specific proposals collectively the city’s sports policy. 
rooted in several cities and which generate dynamics •  The key role of educators, teachers, trainers, 
of participation in games and sports with the aim of officials, monitors and parents must be highlighted. 
promoting community participation, health and social Parents have a decisive influence on the interest of 
cohesion. children and young people in taking part in sports.
The cities of Mexico D.F.: Get moving and get in •  City Councils, with their responsibility for the 
shape; Granollers (Spain): The Granollers Cup, urban environment and public spaces, must act as 
handball that makes a city; Lokossa (Benin): Adji and facilitators and promoters of their use for healthy, 
Vê, two games that teach for life; Strasburg (France): sporting and educational purposes. The creation and 
The General State of Sport; Montevideo (Uruguay): maintenance of these spaces will be just as important 
Montevideo, a Healthy City, and Lisbon (Portugal): as their correct management for a recreational 
Sport inspires me present their criteria, motivations and educational use, in line with the 8th principle 
and realities. Notable among these is the execution of of the Charter: “The organization of the city’s 
actions with the community and with the involvement of physical urban space shall meet the requirements of 
volunteers. accessibility, encounter, relations, play and leisure as 
I would also like to draw attention to certain elements well as a greater closeness to nature”.
that are common to all the contributions and which In the context of this monograph, it can be seen 
coincide with my own views. that the concepts of Educating City, Healthy City 
• T here is a conviction that sport has become a social and Sporting City are, at heart, three closely related 
and cultural phenomenon of the utmost importance expressions, each with its own dynamics, but which 
for inhabitants of all ages, especially due to the interrelate and have to work in a co-ordinated manner 
education values it conveys. We also know that, on with the same goal of making possible that cities be 
some occasions, incorrect use is made of it when places where people can develop with autonomy, in a 
there is cheating in competitions in order to win community, with healthy lifestyles, enjoying life-long 
at any price or when episodes of violence between learning, with social justice and territorial balance.
athletes or their entourage or among spectators 
arise. Enric Truñó i Lagares
• T he term sport is used in a very wide sense, Sports Consultant
sometimes with slight conceptual differences that Councillor of the City of Barcelona (1979-98)
vary between Europe and North America, but we 
have wished to include all kind of physical activities, 
games and sporting disciplines with the aim of 
promoting sport for all. 
• S port, physical activities and games are present in all 
6 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Sergio
iamparino
Ch
(Italy)
Mayor of Turin 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 7
INTERVIEW
Sergio Chiamparino graduated in Political Science in 1973 and worked from 1970 
to 1975 as a researcher at the University of Turin. In 1975 he began his political 
career as party leader for the Italian Communist Party (PCI) on the Moncalieri 
town council (Province of Turin). From 1982 to 1986 he was head of the economics 
department of the Turin PCI, from 1986 to 1988 economics consultant to the PCI 
group at the European Parliament, from 1989 to 1991 he was regional secretary 
of the Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro trade union (CGIL), from 1991 
to 1995 provincial secretary of the Partito Democratico della Sinistra (PDS - 
Democratic Party of the Left) and, in 1993, was elected Turin city councillor. In 
1996 he was elected as a PDS member of the Chamber of Deputies of the Italian 
Parliament, where he was a member of the permanent Budget Commission. He 
was elected Mayor of the City of Turin on 27 May 2001 and re-elected in 2006. 
From 2009 Chiamparino is President of ANCI (Associazione Nazionale Comuni 
Italiani).
What were the reasons that lead Turin to propose What criteria were applied in the organization of the 
its candidacy to organize the Olympic Winter Games once Turin won the nomination? 
Games? First of all, we tried to organize ourselves into a cohesive 
The city was experiencing a period marked by the territory and chosen a winning approach made up of a 
formulation of new development programmes aimed at close collaboration between the organizations involved. 
overcoming the post-industrial crisis and at achieving That was a demanding, difficult process, but it was also the 
better international positioning. key to our success: the coordination between Toroc (Turin 
A need clearly arose when the industrial and post- Organising Committee) and the local and the national 
industrial crisis began, in a one-company town like Turin, actors was very efficient. It was actually based on the 
which would have had very serious effects, and it was sharing of the final objective, in confirming the fact that 
necessary to find an alternative solution in order to avoid the whole ruling class believed in a broad renewal of the 
the collapse of the whole system. At that time, the goal city’s identity and calling, looking for the possibility to set 
was to give to Turin a new identity by linking its name not up this change in real terms. This was a fundamental factor, 
only to large industrial production –which was anyway very even if it outwardly looked as if it was a useful accessory 
important for the city- but to new different features as well. element only. That was the common vision of a city which 
The promotion of the image of a city that was facing a would have then been able to exploit the Games and their 
stiff process of urban renewal and the presentation of new spin-offs.
features became strategic objectives shared by the local Actually, if we look at the role played by major events 
ruling class. over the two last decades for the promotion of cities 
Within this framework, the Games were immediately -at least from the statistical point of view- it seems that 
perceived as an occasion that could not be missed since a positive mutual relation should prevail between the 
they met the need to enhance infrastructure investment, organization of important events and the possibility of 
sustainable development and the improvement of our being successful in improving a city’s urban quality and 
architectural heritage. attractiveness. 
Consequently, Turin would not only have been the perfect There were essentially two criteria that guided the 
location to celebrate the Games, thanks to its geographic organization of the Games: the acceleration of a planned 
location and its traditional background of winter sports, but development strategy and new long-lasting investments. 
the city would also have been able to make the Olympics In fact, the city was undertaking a major infrastructural 
part its broader developments policies, linked to tourism, to transformation and a significant cultural campaign, so 
the capacity to attract a new influx of convention tourists we tried to direct the funds related to the event on more 
and to the development of reception and of cultural strategic projects already existing. Furthermore, the 
offerings. new buildings which were necessary for the Games were 
8 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
conceived in order to be used after the event as housing, is based on the assumption that for any activity or event, 
fair grounds, sport facilities, university residences and the Administration must be committed to promoting 
students housing, offices and so on. citizen participation in the common project through 
institutions and other forms of civil society, along with 
What was the role of citizens in the organizing process spontaneous participation. I do think that this was part of 
of the Games? the Olympic spirit. The citizens were seen as basic actors 
Essential. Most of the 25,000 volunteers were from in the organization of the Games and we chose to depend 
Turin. We asked our citizens to embrace the hosting of on their hospitality and friendliness vis-à-vis international 
an international event and to enjoy the changes that the tourism. Our decision was successful and nowadays we 
city was undertaking: the reaction was extraordinary. The are inspired by that model for the organization of the 
citizens sealed the success of the Games by creating a celebration of the 150th Anniversary of the Unification 
genuine atmosphere of euphoria and satisfaction. Their of Italy. 
participation was really significant: nearly all the Turinese 
have a personal story to tell that is strictly linked to the What have the main legacies of the Olympic Games 
Olympics and it is almost always a very positive one. Our been, in your city and surroundings? Do you consider 
so-called civic pride was much improved by the Games and that the investments made in your city have been 
this is considered as one of the most important factors of profitable, taking subsequent use into account? Could 
the Olympic legacy. you also point out some intangible legacies?
The legacy of the Games is varied. As I have already 
Do you consider that the meaning of the “Educating explained, there is a material legacy made up of new 
city” was present in the organization and celebration of or renovated infrastructures. Moreover, all the Olympic 
the Games? buildings are now used for other purposes, from social 
The participation of citizens proves that. The Games housing to the expansion of the fair centre. The city’s 
were an event that was really part of our lives and I think tourist accommodation capacity has reached European 
that the meaning of “Educating city” was present in the standards thanks to better structures and to a larger 
organization and celebration of the Olympics. Moreover, number of available beds. Moreover, tourism has 
beside the organization of the event, we invested in considerably increased, becoming a real new economic 
order to create new structures and programmes aimed at sector. And then there’s the intangible heritage, 
supporting sport for all ages and at promoting the values represented by the fact that the world now knows where 
and awareness of sport. Furthermore, the knowledge of Turin is and that the Turinese have rediscovered their 
and the interest of citizens in winter sports and notably ice interest in the city. 
sport (not that common in Italy) have increased thanks to Let’s cite another successful experience: Barcelona, after 
the Olympics. the Olympics of 1992, has reported an increase of 
Joining the International Association of Educating Cities tourist flows of 170% between 1990/1991 and 2005. 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 9
This is a textbook example that has been carefully collaboration that brings with it a major sports event to 
studied, as Barcelona was not known as a tourist city and other areas of municipal action?
went through a real boom in tourism after the Olympic It is not easy, but it is possible. I am thinking about large-
Games. scale urban projects, cultural initiatives and, above all, the 
At that time in Barcelona a structured tourist policy management of public utilities on a metropolitan scale. The 
plan did not exist, whereas its course of city development so-called governance must be a firm objective for the public 
was quite clear; it was one of an urban situation with a administrators and it is the best tool for the stability and the 
powerful industrial fabric and, like all industrial areas, it efficacy of the development process. In comparison with the 
was starting to face the effects of the transformation of a exceptional nature of the Games and with the challenges 
manufacturing-based society. they represent, it is not possible to repeat the capacity to 
During that specific historical period Barcelona sensed take important decisions quickly. In fact within ordinary 
it had to invest in the quality of the city as a tool for contexts more time and dialogue are normally required. 
increasing its tourist appeal: Barcelona has the sea and 
its own history, and so it tried to collect all its resources From your experience in the organization of the Olympic 
and exploit the Olympics in that direction, by starting an Winter Games, could you point out some learning 
extraordinary process of regeneration. This is an example experiences that you wish to share with other cities?
that everybody has judged to be as successful. The most important learning experience that we had, and 
that we acquired from other cities, such as Barcelona, was 
What is preferable in order to achieve a bigger impact on that it was necessary to work on the legacy from the very 
a city, promoting a major sport event from time to time beginning. The task is to organise the Games in the best 
or more frequent, less costly sports events? way possible, but the final goal is to gain lasting benefits 
If by impact we mean investments and international for the city. 
visibility, the answer is no doubt a major event. Moreover, Furthermore, the Olympics acted as a deadline for other 
I would like to add that no other major event such as the public works, such as the subway or pedestrian squares; 
Olympics can have the same powerful impact on a city, they were an extraordinary opportunity to say “hurry up, 
and a positive one if it is well managed, a negative one let’s finish this for the Olympics”. Once you start respecting 
if something fails. This does not mean that it would be deadlines, you cannot do without them. Best practices 
useless to set up a rich program of minor sports events, of generate an imitative effect. Today, Turin has changed 
course even this element is good for a city‘s image, for the for the better; its overall quality of life has improved; it 
quality of recreation and awareness of sport. now forms part of package holidays of international tour 
operators, and it is positioning as a city of excellence for 
In the progressive transformation of a city, would it knowledge and university study. And these changes are still 
be possible to transfer the spirit of institutional ongoing. 
10 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Steven N.
Blair rcise Science 
f 
epartments of Exe
ld School o
rno
 at the D tatistics, A
Professor
logy and Bios
th Carolina 
ou
and Epidemio
h, University of S
Public Healt
s)
(United State
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 11
INTERVIEW
Dr. Blair is a Past-president of the National Coalition for Promoting Physical 
Activity, American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and American 
Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education. He was the Senior 
Scientifi c Editor of the U.S. Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity 
and Health. He has received several honors including the 2003 ACSM Honor 
Award, the 2008 American Heart Association Population Science Research 
Prize, and is one of the few individuals outside the U.S. Public Health 
Service to receive the Surgeon General’s Medallion. Dr. Blair is Co-Chair 
of the Exercise Is Medicine program. He has published over 450 chapters 
and papers dealing with his research on the association between lifestyle 
and health, with a main focus on exercise, fi tness, body composition, and 
chronic disease. He is one of the most highly cited exercise scientists in the 
world. He has received honorary doctoral degrees from universities in the 
U.S., Belgium, and England. He has delivered lectures to medical, scientifi c, 
and lay groups in 48 states of the Union and 30 countries. 
What level of physical activity is necessary in order going for a walk, going for a jog, playing tennis, etc. 
for it to be beneficial to our health? Does any type of But returning to your question, I think it is a very difficult 
physical exercise qualify? and controversial one. Following along those lines would 
Some activity is better than none, and more is better than be the question as to what kind of health checkup is 
less. A good general target is to accumulate 150 minutes necessary. In the US it is not even really clear what kind 
of moderate intensity activity, such as walking, over the of medical checkup should be done for people engaging 
course of a week. A comparable alternative is to get 75 in competitive sports, young, middle-aged or older. 
minutes of vigorous activity, such as running or vigorous Nevertheless, some people believe that even young people 
sports, per week, according to official US government doing sport, who are 18, 20 or 22 years of age, should get 
policy. These figures were released by the US Department an ECG (electrocardiogram) stress test, but I do not agree 
of Health and Human Services as guidelines for physical with conducting such an extensive examination.
activity a little over a year ago. The guidelines were My own view is that if you are apparently in good health, 
developed by government scientists on the basis of the if you have no known major chronic diseases and you 
work a group of external scientists. It is a very extensive decide you want to start walking a little more to improve 
review of the literature, almost a 700-page report on your health and fitness, I do not think you have to go to 
the sciences that support the guidelines. There is a huge the doctor in advance. Therefore, putting in more minutes 
amount of evidence from both epidemiology and control of walking into your day does not require a medical 
studies that this dose of exercise produces physiological checkup. 
adaptation and provides health benefits. Nevertheless, in the case of an individual over 35 years 
The guideline also makes two additional points. One is of age, who has been walking regularly and decides to go 
that an individual can combine moderate and vigorous into training to run a marathon, having a health checkup 
activity. For instance, three days of walks, 30 minutes each might be a good idea, even if there is no really consistent 
day, and one day of running for 30 minutes. The other body of opinion on this. 
major point is that our guidelines certify that doing more On the other hand, it is clear that if you have a heart 
exercise can even have greater benefits for health. disease, hypertension or diabetes and you plan to increase 
your physical activity, you should probably talk to your 
Do you think that a health checkup is necessary before doctor. 
doing sports? And one further point, if you are 50 years old and over 
In the first place, it is necessary to clarify the term and apparently healthy and you decide to start walking 
“sport”. In Europe this term is used a little differently than 150 minutes a week and you go out for a walk and feel 
in the US. By sports, we tend to mean doing something chest pain or chest discomfort, that is not a good sign and 
competitively, playing tennis, playing basketball, etc., you should contact your doctor immediately. 
while in Europe sport means a broader range of exercises: In short, there is no major convergence of opinion, but 
12 MONOGRÁFICO CIUDAD, DEPORTE Y EDUCACIÓN 2010
San Sebastian (Spain)
the great majority of adults (90%) who intend to just start do. Whether or not there are additional benefits from 
doing moderate intensity activities, such as walking, can group activity is still uncertain, but what we have found 
go ahead and do so without a medical checkup. in our research, and other researchers have found as 
well, is the value of what we call social support. It is very 
Currently, what are the main health problems helpful to people who are trying to change over to healthy 
generated by a lack of physical activity? habits by exercising or dieting or quitting smoking if their 
Physical inactivity contributes to the most important friends, their family, their co-workers, or others provide 
health problems facing modern society. These include them support and encouragement. This makes it more 
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, breast and colon cancer, likely that they will achieve these lifestyle changes.
obesity, and loss of function. A group setting may in fact help you to exercise. When 
you go for a walk by yourself or for a walk with your 
Are there any major health illnesses that restrict neighbor the health benefits are probably the same but 
individuals from doing sport? you may be more likely to go if you have do it with others. 
Years ago when we began with exercise recommendations Group sports can be very attractive to many people. 
we had a long list of such diseases. We would say that if 
you had congested heart failure you should not exercise, What are the best facilities for doing sport/physical 
but now 25-30 years later, we have found that people activity? In the case of cities that do not have 
with congested heart failure can also benefit from being sufficient sport facilities, should this be an impediment 
physically active. I think almost everyone can benefit from to doing physical exercise? 
being regularly active. If you have a serious disease, heart The best facilities will of course differ depending on the 
disease, cancer, etc. the exercise recommendations may sport/activity of preference, cultural factors, and so on. I 
need to be a little different, and you should follow your think one of the most important things that cities can do 
doctor’s advice, but there is hardly any condition that is to ensure that it is convenient for you to walk or cycle, 
absolutely prevents someone from exercising. and that people have access to recreational facilities. 
In reference to obesity, but indeed in other health More people are likely benefit from these approaches 
conditions such as heart disease, breast cancer, diabetes, than if a lot of money is invested in competitive sports 
etc., taking exercise does not put a stop to these facilities. I encourage local officials and public servants 
conditions, but if you exercise regularly your overall to make sport opportunities available to individuals and 
health improves and your risk of dying is reduced. to make their communities convenient for walkers and 
Therefore, exercise does not magically make all your cyclists.
health problems disappear, but it does make you healthier 
and makes you more likely to survive over the long term. What is more beneficial for health: in-door activities (in 
a fitness center, for instance) or open-air activities?
What other forms of behaviour or lifestyles are The Scandinavians have discovered that many times 
necessary? people get depressed during their long dark winters. 
It is of course important to make other healthful lifestyle There are special lights that help prevent this condition 
choices. These include not smoking, managing stress, and sunlight seems to be effective in treating certain 
having a healthy diet, and getting adequate sleep. psychological conditions. Therefore, some people may get 
additional benefits from exercising outside, but I would 
What are the advantages of group physical recreational like underscore the fact that the main thing is exercising, 
activity? anywhere. 
Group recreational activity is very appealing to many 
people. Others prefer to exercise alone. The important Can sport bring in psychological benefits?
thing is for people to find something they enjoy and will I pointed out earlier what the physical health benefits 
Barcelona (Spain) Guadalajara (Mexico) Loures (Portugal)
are, but it is clear that there are mental health benefits How would you motivate citizens to do exercise?
as well from exercising. We have solid research providing Making physical activity convenient in the community; 
evidence that exercise is as effective as drugs in offering programs to community residents is important. 
mitigating depression. It should often be a supplement This could take the shape of programs on the radio, 
to psychological counseling in treating depression. There television, in the newspapers, giving people advice on 
are clear psychological benefits: people feel better, they how to start and maintain exercise programs. Or, exercise 
report having more energy. In addition, exercise seems to programs could be offered at community facilities. 
improve brain function, both in children and older adults. I think it is very important to ensure that doctors 
Consequently, there are enormous physiological and and other healthcare workers really understand the 
mental health benefits to regular exercise. importance of exercise to health. We have started an 
initiative with the American Medical Association and 
In your opinion, what should cities and physical spaces the American College of Sports Medicine, which is 
be like in order to facilitate an active life and physical called “Exercise is Medicine”. This program tries to help 
exercise? What suggestions would you make to local healthcare workers to be more consistent in talking with 
administrations in this sense? their patients about the benefits of exercise. 
Elected officials and civil servants have a huge Regarding the educational system, every year we 
responsibility to make the city convenient for the citizens graduate millions of students from schools in the U.S. who 
to have a healthy lifestyle. Local administrations need to do not really have an understanding of the importance of 
be certain that their city is walkable, that traffic is not an exercise for their health; and we can say the same about 
impediment to walking or cycling, that parks and green diet. I think we almost totally fail in educating our young 
spaces are plentiful, that sports and recreational facilities people about healthy lifestyles and I think that this is the 
are readily available and that tax policies encourage government’s responsibility. 
walking/cycling and discourage driving a car and parking. 
The same is true for a healthy diet. I think what should According to your experiences around the world, are 
be done is to ensure that healthy food is available. In the you familiar with any best practices at city level that 
US in the poor areas of many of our large cities, there you would like to share with us?
are not really many opportunities for people to buy fresh I think the Dutch have a very good approach, and 
fruit and vegetables. One of the things that has become Amsterdam particularly. In Amsterdam you have streetcar 
popular here is what we call farmers’ markets, where lanes making it convenient to take public transport, and 
the local farmers bring in their produce and make it there is a bicycle lane, there is a place for walking and 
convenient for people to buy it. there is also a place for cars. In Damm square there is 
There are a number of things that officials can do as a bicycle parking lot with thousands of bikes; there are 
well as, for instance, conduct educational and health more bikes parked there than in many entire cities in the 
intervention programs and make advice available for U.S. It is an example of how to make a city convenient 
starting these programs in schools and community for walking and cycling, with parks and green spaces. 
centers, and helping people learn how to adopt healthy City planners, city officials need to take this seriously, 
behaviors (non-smoking, having a healthy diet, being and even in Amsterdam there is probably room for 
physically active, etc.). improvement. 
14 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Christina 
Ramberg
nager of the 
al Planning Ma
)
Environment  (Sweden
ity of Gothenburg
C
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 15
INTERVIEW
Christina Ramberg, M. Sc. Chemical Engineering, works as 
Environmental Planning Manager at Gothenburg’s Department of 
the Environment. She was head of development of Gothenburg’s 
environmental programme for the World Athletics Championship 
in 1995 and Gothenburg’s environmental programme for the 
European Athletics Championship in 2006. Currently, she is mostly 
involved in international or EU-fi nanced environmental development 
projects for “greening events”, as well as in climate change, energy 
effi ciency, training and education, etc.
How can we combine sport and sustainability when city Environmentally adapted building material can also be 
officials plan sport activities? Is the environment taken used. It is also important to have good, low-emission public 
into account? transport, and also to conserve our green areas around 
When I look back on the situation in Gothenburg in the arena or in the neighborhood. And it is essential to 
the middle of the 90’s, the relationship between sport inform the citizens and the visitors about environmental 
and environment was not so clear. In Gothenburg we considerations so that they can follow the “rules”.
started our discussions on the environment and sport  
around 1994 because in 1995 we hosted the World What kind of sport events require a major preventive 
Athletics Championship and the Department of the care by the organizers? 
Environment proposed that sustainability should play All major events require preventive care as they have a 
a major role in the championship. And we began our major environmental impact. A major sport event means 
environmental consciousness-raising work. It took some that there are agglomerations of people and many public 
time to convince the organization, but afterwards they celebrations. Therefore you need special preventive care. 
accepted our proposals. Nowadays there is a much greater But it is also necessary to begin environmental impact 
understanding of sport and environment or sustainability. discussions even for rather small happenings, cultural or 
minor sport events, because even minor events have an 
How should the urban environment or the sport environmental impact. Moreover, minor events give you the 
facilities be equipped in order to respect the possibility to learn how to handle environmental issues. 
environment?
In both the open air and indoor spaces, as far as sport is What environmental impacts can major sports events 
concerned, it is important to have the necessary equipment have?
so that people can be made easily aware of environmental Major sports events such as the World Championship or 
activities. For instance, skips for waste re-cycling, e.g. the European Athletics Championship, or football and 
sorting paper, plastic, metal, etc. Or at the stadium, for other sports events have an environmental impact, such 
instance, you can have an environmental-friendly energy as increased greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, noise 
production such as solar cells and windmills for electricity, problems, increased energy consumption and an increase 
and use renewable fuels such as biogas for heating, etc. in waste. 
16 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
What are the basic principles of sustainability to take organizing an event than legislation and regulations. In 
into account at sport events? Gothenburg, we have tried to work in a way that organizers 
Sustainable procurement criteria are important in the voluntarily take sustainability into account and we give 
organization of an event. It is important that all the them advice and ideas on this matter. We also have a 
equipment you need for an event has a low environmental certification system that is less burdensome than ISO 
impact, we are talking about the impact on air quality or or EMAS certification; if the organizers meet certain 
water, greenhouse gas emissions or noise. sustainable demands they will receive an Environment 
It is also crucial that you provide information for the Certificate for the event. We have worked with the 
citizens and visitors to the arena, so that they know which organizers, and we have noticed that it is easier to get 
environmental criteria are being met. Informing and them on board if we encourage them in a positive way. 
training civil servants is also very important. This environmental certification allows them to show 
that they are certified by the our city’s local environment 
What are the main benefits of organizing sustainable administration. We already began this in 1995 and we have 
events? Do sustainable measures imply an economic developed the system even further: we use it for other 
burden for event organizers? businesses as well, but we know that it is a very good 
If an organization or a City Council hosts a major event, it solution for events. When we talk about major sporting 
is very important that you can show your environmental events such as the Olympic Games, then ISO or EMAS 
measures –that there is an environment policy, an certification is more suitable, but for other kinds of events 
environmental action plan and a follow-up program. a simpler system can be sufficient. Therefore, having 
This can give you the possibility of organizing other guidelines and certification systems has been the best 
events in the future because you have complied with the solution for us.
environmental recommendations. Of course we also comply with legislation and regulations 
Nowadays organizers do not think that sustainable –when the existing legislation is applicable. For 
measures imply an economic burden because they also instance, the handling of food at an event. When we 
generate economic benefits, at least in the medium- and talk about the certification system, the first point is that 
long-term. If we are talking about major organizers, they you must obey the law, and accordingly we recommend 
give them the possibility of competing for new events in what is needed to be done to be certified. We have criteria 
the city; and a major international or even national event for transport, energy production and consumption, 
that includes environmental actions will generate economic chemical use, etc. We try to improve the work of the 
benefits for the organizers. So I do not think that one can organizers on the sustainability side, by adding other 
say today that the application of sustainable measures is requirements that should be met, going further than 
an economic burden. legislation does.
Should local governments establish mandatory Could you give us some examples of the things that are 
regulations to control sport events or is it more suitable included in these guidelines?
to establish a guide for best environmental practices in The guidelines for events include:
order to foster awareness among all the people involved • T ransport, including the transport for the people coming 
in the process? to the event, but also for the athletes and players and 
My own opinion is that guidelines or handbooks on how transport for distribution. So we take into account all 
to handle environmental issues are more important for kinds of transport. 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 17
•  Energy consumption and efficiency: how to handle energy 
issues in a more environment-friendly way, and, of course, 
greenhouse gas emission management. 
•  Waste handling: provide the possibility for sorting waste. 
•  Food handling: proper hygienic food handling, as per 
current legislation, but also recommendations for 
providing ecological food.
•  Disposable materials: paper or bio-degradable material.
•  Conservation of green areas. 
•  Training and information: training civil servants for the 
event and providing information to citizens and visitors. 
These are just some examples. When it is a really major 
event, we have also discussed souvenirs and the use of 
chemicals.
Who bears the responsibility for sustainability in 
sport at the city level (the Department of Sports, 
the Department of the Environment, others)? Is 
coordination among departments required?
At this time in our city there is a discussion among different 
departments. From the beginning it was the Department of 
the Environment that suggested including environmental I am not sure if a campaign is necessary, but what is crucial 
requirements in events of this type. But there is currently is to make visible the fact that the events in our city are 
solid cooperation, not only between the Department of properly based on the principles of sustainability. It is also 
Sport and the Department of the Environment, but also important to provide all this information to the media and 
among others. Major events, sports or other kinds of events the press that will follow the event. 
attract many tourists, so cooperation is critical amongst It is fundamental to integrate the training of the 
different departments (tourism, sport, the environment, civil servants into the event, as well as the training of 
transport, or waste issues, etc). In Gothenburg, at least, volunteers or people working in the organizations that are 
when a major event is organized there is always a task handling the event. These training sessions should take 
force from different departments working together; at a into account all the criteria that I have mentioned earlier 
minor event at the very least the Department of Sport and regarding waste sorting, transport, food handling, the use 
the Department of the Environment work together. of chemicals, building materials, energy production and 
consumption, etc. 
What criteria should govern the relationship with sport When we refer to the supporters, I recognize that training 
and environmental associations? them can be very difficult. Nevertheless, you should provide 
The most important thing is that you work together and them with information on the rules and regulations of the 
discuss sustainability at a very early stage because it is not stadium or the arena, for instance, that you cannot throw 
something that you can work out just two weeks before an your paper or your waste wherever you want, and that you 
event begins. One must begin working on this issue one need to follow the rules. So what is important is to give 
or two years or more before the event opens. It is very them information and show them where they can find all 
important that you establish cooperation at least between the skips for waste sorting and the like. Another idea that 
the sport organizations in your city and the environment could help is to find a famous football player or an athletic 
department. Furthermore, environmental associations can star who will support the principles of sustainability. If you 
also get involved in this work. have a major event such as the European Championship in 
your city and one of your own national stars takes a stand 
Which issues should awareness campaigns or training on the importance of waste sorting or other sustainability 
for event organizers include? And what about those for issues, this can serve as a point of reference for the 
supporters? supporters. 
18 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
ann Olav 
Joh
Koss Right To Play
e Offi cer of 
hief Executiv
President and C
da)
Toronto (Cana
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 19
INTERVIEW
Johann Olav Koss is the Founder of Right To Play -an international 
humanitarian organization that uses sport and play to improve health, develop 
life skills and foster peace among children in the most disadvantaged regions 
of the world. As one of the greatest speed skaters of all time, Johann earned 5 
Olympic medals and broke 11 world records throughout the course of his career. 
Johann began his humanitarian work as an Ambassador for Olympic Aid in 
1993. In 1994, he was chosen by UNICEF to be the Special Representative for 
Sport and, in 2006, was appointed to the post of Ambassador. Johann has 
dedicated himself to growing Right To Play into an internationally recognized 
non-government organization (NGO) and a leader in Sport for Development. 
Today, Right To Play develops and implements child and community 
development programs in more than 20 countries in Africa, Asia, and the 
Middle East, working with the UN and other agencies, including UNICEF, 
UNHCR, GAVI and WHO.
Johann’s acclamations include Sportsman of the Year by USA Sports 
Illustrated, the Jesse Owens Award, the International Athletic Foundation 
Award and the Jackie Robinson Humanitarian Award. Johann was given the 
Child Survival Award in 1996 by the Carter Center in Atlanta and, later that 
year during the celebration of UNICEF’s 50th anniversary, he was given 
UNICEF’S honorary award. He has been named a Future Leader of Tomorrow by 
TIME magazine, a Young Global Leader by the World Economic Forum and most 
recently a Senior Ashoka Fellow by the Ashoka Association.
Johann holds a Bachelor of Medicine from the University of Queensland and 
an Executive MBA from the Rotman School of Management at the University 
of Toronto. 
What should the role be of local institutions in order of resources, know-how and expertise which can make 
to foster peace through sport? What functions can them extremely valuable to local peace-building efforts. 
international associations such as “Right to Play” Although no two situations are alike, international 
have? organizations are often able to take lessons learned from 
Local institutions are instrumental to ensuring the one context and apply them to another with significant 
effective delivery of sport programs that aim to foster results. 
peace. Because they are based at the community level, Ideally, international organizations will work in tandem 
local institutions are well-equipped to provide knowledge with local institutions to support shared objectives and 
and expertise about community needs and are important goals. Doing so will enhance the overall strength and 
allies when developing and implementing sport and play effectiveness of the intervention at hand, and in my 
programs at the local level. opinion, will be more likely to effectively contribute to 
In war-affected communities international organizations peace and reconciliation efforts over the long-term.
can be very effective as they can maintain neutrality. 
In times of conflict, local institutions may be used as On the practical level, what have been the impacts 
political instruments to manipulate power dynamics –a of the recommendations produced by the Sport for 
process that can contribute to distrust by some members Development and Peace International Working Group?
of the community. In these contexts, it is often easier for The Sport for Development and Peace International 
international organizations like Right To Play to remain Working Group (SPD IWG) is a high-level policy initiative 
neutral, and as a result, to initiate interventions that that grew out of the UN Inter-Agency Task Force on 
aim to enhance peace and reconciliation. Although, local Sport for Development. When it began in 2004, there 
expertise is invaluable to all humanitarian interventions, were only a handful of countries participating. By 2008, 
international organizations also possess a wide range this participation had risen to include 59 governments, 
20 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Johann Koss joins Sport and Play activities in Promoting teamwork and Right To Play programming in Peru
Uganda building trust and respect among 
participants
10 UN agencies, programmes and funds, and countless but it also took the further step of encouraging Member 
representatives from civil society. States to implement them. 
As Secretariat to the SDP IWG from 2004-2008, Although policy change takes time, we have seen some 
Right To Play led efforts to achieve the working group’s governments increase their budget allocations towards 
first mandate by developing and presenting policy Sport for Development and Peace programming in the 
recommendations to governments that outlined how sport past few years. We have also witnessed the incorporation 
could be positioned as a tool for development in national of sport and physical activity into educational curriculum, 
and international development strategies. In 2008, we and in some instances, in national poverty reduction 
released a ground-breaking report titled “Harnessing strategies. As a result of the recommendations, there has 
the Power of Sport for Development and Peace: also been increased government recognition of the ways in 
Recommendations to Governments” at a meeting on the which sport can contribute to the achievement of the UN 
margins of the Summer Olympic Games. This report, which Millennium Development Goals.
was the first of its kind, demonstrated that well-designed With the new mandate for the SDP IWG now being 
policies and programs focused on the best values of sport transitioned to the UN, there is enormous potential to 
could drive development goals forward by presenting support the uptake of the policy recommendations by 
consolidated up-to-date evidence of the benefits of sport in Member States. Recognizing that some governments 
a number of thematic areas, including: i) health promotion will need assistance to do this, the task at hand will be 
and disease prevention, ii) child and youth development to facilitate the transfer of technical expertise, as well as 
and education, iii) gender empowerment, iv) inclusion, the financial and logistical resources, that are needed to 
and v) peace-building. The report also presented specific support implementation efforts. We look forward to being 
policy and program-level recommendations to different closely involved in this process and would like to begin 
government ministries working in these particular areas, by identifying early adopter governments so that we can 
as well as practical high-level recommendations that all create case-studies highlighting their success. 
countries could adopt.
The recommendations from the report have been very What are the best ways or forms to use sports to 
well received. In fact, it has been a challenge to keep up promote peace? What values can be transmitted through 
with all of the requests we have received to distribute sport?
them and we are now planning to translate the report into From my personal experiences visiting communities that 
other languages. It pleases me to say that the report’s have been affected by war and conflict, and now through 
recommendations have now been discussed at a number of my work with Right To Play, I have learned a lot about the 
important international meetings and events and they have social value of sport and how it can contribute to peace. 
been circulated amongst key influential bodies, including When used effectively, I believe that sport can promote 
the Commonwealth, the European Commission, the peace in a number of ways. 
African Union and the United Nations General Assembly. Given its universal appeal and popularity, sport programs 
Perhaps most notably, at the 63rd session of the UN General can be an excellent way to stimulate relationships between 
Assembly, a resolution was passed by Member States people on a very personal level. Sport programs do this 
to encourage the use of sport as a means to promote by providing the initial “hook” needed to bring opposing 
education, health, development and peace. Not only did this groups together. In doing so, sport can help to build 
resolution explicitly acknowledge our recommendations, relationships between opposing groups and provide them 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 21
Thailand’s Umpium Camp Rwanda, Day of the African Child
with a sense of shared identity over time. At Right To Play, we specially design our sport and play 
Sport can also help to support disarmament and programs with specific development and peace outcomes 
demobilization efforts in post-conflict settings and can help in mind. When programs are designed to promote specific 
to reintegrate former combatants into their communities. outcomes, I believe they are more likely to achieve their 
Sport programs work by creating shared experiences desired goals. This does not mean, however, that other 
between excluded individuals and their communities and approaches cannot also promote peace. When designed and 
by providing marginalized people with a sense of belonging delivered effectively, I believe that many different types of 
and purpose that can deter them from becoming involved sport programs contribute to positive social change. Having 
in armed gangs and militias. Regular sporting activities can said this, there are certain characteristics of well-designed 
also help to return a sense of normalcy to communities sport programs that must be prioritized.
that are coping with the after-effects of war and can First and foremost, sport programs that seek to promote 
provide safe spaces where psycho-social trauma can be peace must prioritize the best values of sport. These 
acknowledged and discussed. values include characteristics such as fair play, teamwork, 
Even in settings where active conflict has not occurred, inclusion, respect for one’s opponents and cooperation. 
sport programs are instrumental to the psycho-social Sport programs that focus on these values, over and above 
health and well-being of communities, and can work a focus on competition and winning at all costs, will be 
to ensure that conflict does not escalate into violence. much more likely to achieve their desired outcomes. 
Effective sport programs that are designed to be inclusive Secondly, sport and play programs must be delivered by 
and accessible to all members of the community can well-trained coaches and leaders who are poised to act as 
enhance quality of life and promote social cohesion. In positive role models for participants. Many young people, 
doing so, sport can unite people across social, economic particularly during adolescence, become discouraged from 
and cultural divides, and over time, this can help to participating in regular sport and play programs if they do 
minimize perceived differences.  not receive ongoing support from caring adult role models 
For children and youth in particular, sport and play and peers. Coaches and leaders should be sensitive to this 
programs are extremely advantageous. By participating and must strive to create positive environments conducive 
in sporting activities that are well-designed and delivered to learning and development. 
by qualified and well-trained coaches and leaders, children Finally, programs must be offered in safe spaces that are 
and youth can gain the transferable life skills needed to accessible and inclusive to all. Programs should be adapted 
navigate key life transitions successfully. Through sport to include persons with disabilities – and in the case of 
participation, children and youth gain valuable leadership, post-conflict settings, persons recovering from war-related 
communications and team-building skills, and come to injury and trauma. Programs must also be delivered in 
understand how to resolve conflicts non-violently. Through accessible settings that consider the unique culture and 
regular contact with a caring adult role model, they also circumstance of the community. 
gain self-confidence and become more self-aware as 
individuals – thus putting them on a positive life trajectory Can you explain the impact of any successful 
which can complement long-term peace-building efforts experiences that you know of in this area?
Right To Play began implementing sport and play activities 
Can any sport contribute to fostering peace? What does in refugee settings nearly 10 years ago as a means to reach 
the effectiveness of these actions depend on? out to children and youth affected by war. Today, we are 
22 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Children with and without disabilities gain confidence and improve their health by participating in inclusive sport programs
actively working with refugees and internally displaced authorities, as well as local and international branches 
persons in twelve countries. Results from evaluations of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and 
conducted on our programming in at-risk countries such the UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). Recently, an 
as Azerbaijan, Benin, Mali, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Tanzania evaluation of a UN Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) 
and the West Bank have demonstrated that our approach program in Palestine found that schools that were 
to peace-building is contributing to conflict reduction at implementing our curriculum incurred fewer incidents of 
the community level while increasing individual abilities to violence amongst their students. 
resolve conflict cooperatively. 
At the same time, we are also actively promoting Is sport intervention in violent areas or war zones 
advocacy efforts to support global peace. For example, in feasible? 
Lebanon at the Global Peace Games in 2008, we worked in Any intervention in a war-affected region will bring great 
partnership with local and national organizations to bring challenges, and certainly sport and play interventions 
more than 550 child refugees from Lebanon, Palestine and are no exception. In active war zones, sport can act as 
Iraq together to sign the UNESCO Manifesto for “Peace a powerful agent to provide respite from conflict and to 
and Non-Violence in Education”. By signing the Manifesto briefly open a window for temporary aid and relief efforts 
in the presence of local authorities, children pledged their to take place. An excellent example of this is the Olympic 
commitment to non discrimination and respect, while Truce passed by the United Nations each Olympic year. 
renouncing all forms of violence and defending freedom of Historically, the Olympic Truce was designed to ensure 
expression, open participation and more. the safe passage of athletes from warring nations to and 
Because we believe that peace-building interventions from the Games. More recently, the Truce has become 
require the involvement of entire communities, we work symbolic of sport’s power as an agent of peace. During the 
to engage parents, gatekeepers, community leaders 1994 Lillehammer Olympic Games, for example, the Truce 
and governments in all of our programs and initiatives. prompted a halt to the conflict in Bosnia just long enough 
We proudly work alongside local and national partners, to permit the inoculation of 10,000 Bosnian children. 
including national Ministries of Education, municipal Similarly, in Sudan, the Truce prompted a ceasefire between 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 23
into their communities, and contributing to a sense of 
resiliency and self-confidence amongst those who have 
been directly affected by violence.
Do you know of any cases of rejection of cooperative 
sport activities offered to some cities in special 
situations?
I am not aware of any cases where cooperative sport 
activities have been rejected by the community, however, 
this is not to say that it has not happened. My advice in 
this area is to ensure that sport interventions are well-
designed from the outset and that a proper analysis and 
evaluation is conducted prior to embarking on a new 
program. Programs should be designed in collaboration 
with local implementing partners and experts in order to 
ensure they meet the needs expressed by the community, 
and are designed with sensitivity to local culture. Programs 
that fail do this may risk being rejected by the city or 
community in question. 
What features should be contemplated necessarily in 
order to establish policies of cooperation for peace 
through sport?
While policy change is crucial to support peace-building 
efforts, policy change alone will never be effective without 
strong support for peace-building processes at the 
programmatic and civic levels. 
Sport and Play activities offer opportunities to work together towards As a starting point, governments, as members of the 
a common goal UN General Assembly, can call on and encourage armed 
opposition groups involved in conflict to respect the 
Sudanese government and an armed opposition group. Olympic Truce. Doing so can provide warring parties 
These examples, although inspiring, are not commonplace. with a window of opportunity to consider non-violent 
We must not forget that sport alone cannot solve years of solutions. 
conflict or end wars between nations. While these examples Governments can also explicitly reference sport as an 
present compelling evidence of the potential for sport to agent of peace-building directly in any national policy 
act as a catalyst to promote peace, it is important to note related to peace-building. Doing so will help to 
that in most active war zones, sport-specific interventions raise awareness of sport’s potential and facilitate 
are not typically feasible. consideration for sport in broader international 
Where war is actively occurring, the reality is that strategies for peace.
emergency response efforts often must be prioritized over Countries should also re-consider their use of sport for 
and above sport. In countries affected by war, children, nation-building in order to ensure that the messages being 
adults and entire communities face enormous risks to supported are not promoting negative feelings towards 
their safety, security and well-being. In most of these opposing groups or towards outsiders. 
circumstances the most fundamental prerequisites for Finally, countries must commit to addressing peace-
the delivery of effective sport programs (i.e. safe spaces building at the individual level, as well as at the socio-
to gather, basic nutrition, physical infrastructure, etc.) are political level. Efforts that seek to address only one of 
not present, and thus it is not advisable to introduce a these levels risk having no discernible impact on lasting 
sporting intervention without first conducting a thorough peace. Programs that build trust and relationships at 
assessment of the on-the-ground reality of the situation. the individual level can have a transformative impact 
Where active violence has ceased, sporting interventions on community attitudes and perceptions. To capitalize 
are excellent ways to support peace-building efforts by on these benefits, governments are encouraged to work 
enhancing the process of disarmament, reconciliation and directly with local institutions and expert implementing 
the promotion of healing. Sport is particularly effective in organization in order to enhance and support uptake at 
integrating victims of war, including former child-soldiers, the socio-political level. 
24 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
ole of Sport.
The Social R
cal Sports 
Implications on Lo
Policy
eboom elgium)
nd Marc The l (B
ersiteit Brusse
Paul De Knop a
agement, Vrije Univ
icy and Man
Department of Sport Pol
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 25
ARTICLE
The belief in a broader social role of sport has resulted in a shift 
among many local sports policy makers to regard sport from a general 
welfare perspective. As the organized sports sector only plays a 
moderate role in a more inclusive policy, alternatively organized sports 
initiatives (such as ‘neighbourhood sports’ in Flanders) are offering 
new opportunities to reach out to specifi c socially deprived groups in 
society.
Introduction countries to provide additional opportunities for youth 
The practice of sport has been associated with a variety education and community building, as well as to support 
of social meanings and functions (Hoyng et al., 1998). the battle against HIV/Aids (Kruse, 2006). 
These functions are situated either on the individual or This belief in the broader social role of sport has 
on the social level and relate, among other things, to resulted in a shift in aims among an increasing number 
health improvement, democratization, identification, of local sports policy makers in which the promotion of 
economic and political values. For example, over the past sport moved from a narrow (physical) health promotion 
decade, many have stated that sport can contribute to the perspective to a wider social welfare perspective (De 
development of social capital, which will eventually help Graaff, 1996). Instead of regarding sports merely as a way 
people in becoming better citizens. Research has suggested to make people more physically active, it gradually also 
that sports involvement is negatively correlated with became a means to improve the situation of specific groups 
antisocial attitudes, such as ethnocentrism, individualism, in society (such as, with regard to the improvement of 
political distrust, traditionalism and feelings of insecurity social integration and participation of socially vulnerable 
(Scheerder et al., 2006). It has also been indicated that groups, the reduction of delinquency and criminality among 
people involved in sports have more trust in others youth at risk, etc…) (Collins & Kay, 2003). 
compared to non-active people (Breedveld & van der 
Meulen, 2002) and that sports participation enhances civic Sport-plus 
engagement in comparison with other leisure activities While it can be noted that the educational potential of 
(Uslaner, 1999). sport has been known for a long time (e.g., in the context of 
Many have indicated that organized sports participation physical education and organized youth sport), the use of 
in particular can play an important role in this. For example, sport as a means of the personal and social development 
membership in sports associations is believed to encourage of specific deprived groups in society is of a more recent 
group cohesion (Elchardus et al., 2001) and according to date. Two approaches can be distinguished here: that is, 
Putnam (2000), sports organizations can even contribute ‘sport-plus’ and ‘plus-sport’. In the first approach, the 
to the (re)construction of social cohesion in today’s emphasis is on sport as such, but its instrumental role is 
individualized societies. also considered. The second approach starts from a social, 
Consequently, since the ‘90s, an increased trust in the educational or health-related perspective and regards sport 
broad social role of sport can be seen in many countries. merely as a part of a broader and more complex set of 
Awareness campaigns have been set up on different levels processes. In the remainder of this paper, the focus will be 
to emphasize the social value of sport and to stimulate on sport-plus.
various actors within the sports sector to play a more Today, various examples of specific local sport-plus 
active role in this. For example, 2004 was chosen as initiatives can be found in cities from around the world. 
the ‘European Year of Education through Sport’ by the One of the specific groups that are often being targeted 
European Commission, and the United Nations proclaimed through sport is the group of socially deprived youth. 
2005 as the ‘International Year of Sport and Physical Targeting this group has often been triggered by the 
Education’. During the latter, the sports sector was called growing concern among local policy makers regarding the 
upon to help to work for world peace and to support the public ‘nuisance’ specific youth causes in urban deprived 
Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2005). For areas (e.g., vandalism, offensive behaviour,…). Making 
example, in this context, an increasing number of ‘sport use of sport in dealing with this youth segment mostly 
development projects’ have been set up in developing emphasizes the prevention of ‘undesirable’ behaviour. It 
26 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
has been assumed that sport for them can, among other the offer, an increased demand-orientation, improving 
things, contribute to a better self-image, better life skills, communication and accessibility of the offer). Although 
a higher personal and social sense of responsibility, more these strategies are also used in reaching out to persons in 
social capital, etc. The underlying notion is that sporting the second category, there has been a tendency to focus 
outcomes (e.g., skill development) might eventually lead to on a more instrumental function of sport, in which sports 
intermediate changes on the individual level (e.g., pro-social participation is regarded as a means to increase personal 
development), which in turn might lead to broader societal and social development among socially deprived target 
changes (e.g., social cohesion). groups. This has led to the occurrence of an alternative 
Initiatives for this group are often characterized by 
their high accessibility, the use of challenging or trendy 
sports activities, the involvement of various partners and 
alternative organizational formats. The latter is a result 
of the fact that, despite the often acclaimed benefits 
of organized sports involvement, sports clubs have 
never played a significant role in the provision of sports 
opportunities for underprivileged youth. Instead, somewhat 
surprisingly, other providers have become gradually 
involved in the organization of specific community sports 
initiatives (e.g., the sector of youth, education, integration, 
social affairs, prevention,…). 
To illustrate the shift in local sports policy to make 
use of sport from a more general welfare perspective, a 
specific trend is described below that has been noted since 
the beginning of the 90’s in most cities in Flanders, the 
northern Dutch-speaking part of Belgium.
Neighbourhood Sport in Flanders
Since the 1960’s, Flemish government has actively 
promoted sports participation among its population (De 
Knop, 2000). Undoubtedly, partly because of an active 
‘Sports for all’ policy, today the Flemish population is more 
sports active than before. However, studies indicate that 
clear differences in sports activity levels exist between 
various groups (e.g., Scheerder, 2004). Statistics show that 
the degree of sports participation of specific groups, such 
as senior citizens, disabled persons and ethnic minorities, 
is distinctly lower than for other groups. A number of 
barriers exist that can account for these differences in 
sports participation. These relate to a variation in personal 
attitudes and knowledge of sport and physical activity, but 
also to differences in availability of time, means, mobility, 
etc. 
Generally speaking, two categories of groups can 
be distinguished that are not, or only to a limited 
extent, involved in sport. These two categories can be 
characterized in relation to a) their (problematic) degree 
of sports participation (e.g., ‘sports inactive’ and ‘sports 
underprivileged’) and b) their (problematic) situation (e.g., 
social deprivation, ethnic minorities, juvenile delinquents, 
drug addicts,…). Over the years, several initiatives have 
been set up in Flanders to reach out to these categories. 
The aims differ according to the specific category. With 
regard to the first category, the emphasis is on increasing 
the interest in sport (e.g., through raising the quality of 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 27
sports organizational format in the larger Flemish cities position of neighbourhood sports in Flanders indicated 
that became known as ‘neighbourhood sports’, a term that that there is a wide diversity of organizational formats 
refers in essence to the use of specific methodologies that in neighbourhood sports (Theeboom & De Maesschalck, 
are different from the more traditional sports delivery 2006). This variety largely depends on the type of 
formats. co-ordinating organization, as well as on the aims and 
It is important to note that one overall neighbourhood specific target group. Neighbourhood sports are often 
sports format does not exist in the Flemish context. regarded as an accessible means of sports stimulation 
Findings of a study that attempted to determine the actual and are addressed to those groups that are not, or only 
28 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
to a limited extent, participating in (organized) sports. development: a flexible, adaptable, informal, interactive, 
While neighbourhood sports initiatives occasionally make people-centred approach, aimed at lowering the initial 
use of regular sports facilities, they are often organized hurdles to participation in order to address the deficiencies 
in a variety of facilities (from outdoor places such as of mainstream provision (Hylton & Totten, 2008). The 
public parks and squares to indoor facilities such as innovative character of these neighbourhood sports 
renovated warehouses, parking spaces, etc.). In most of initiatives for the Flemish situation can be found in the way 
these initiatives there has been an increased interest in they are embedded in regular structures (municipal sports 
working together on the local level with other structures and youth services) and the striving towards a formal co-
coming from in and outside the sports sector. The operation network of different actors within the community 
choice of neighbourhood sports activities, as well as the context. The concept of neighbourhood sports can be 
organizational level and type of guidance approach, varies compared with formats elsewhere, such as the Community 
according to the target group and specific neighbourhood Sport Networks in the UK and the Neighbourhood-
characteristics. Education-Sport (‘BOS’) approach in the Netherlands.
Today, the Flemish government recognizes the value 
of neighbourhood sports. A decree on ‘Local sport Concluding remarks
policy’, which was issued in 2008, states that municipal It becomes clear that the expectations for using sport from 
sports services are obliged to invest one fifth of the a broader social perspective have increased over the past 
government funds in alternatively organized sports decade, which has stimulated an increasing number of 
initiatives (such as neighbourhood sports) in order to local policy makers to make use of sport as an important 
receive subsidies from the Flemish government. Next to mediator in helping socially deprived groups. However, 
school sports, neighbourhood sports has become one despite the growing belief among many regarding this 
of the most frequent alternative formats for organized potential of sport-plus, the often acclaimed added value of 
sports in Flemish cities and are in line with what has been sport is described in most cases in only very general and 
described as being the characteristics of community sports vague terms. Determining whether or not these vague aims 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 29
life skills through sport to at-risk youth. Quest, 49, 100-113. 
can be realized is, therefore, very difficult. Coalter (2007) • De Graaff, D. (1996). Ontwikkelingen in het Gemeentelijk Sportbeleid 
referred in this context to“... ill-defined interventions with in de Jaren Negentig: een Verkennende Studie in Drie Gemeenten 
hard-to-follow outcomes…” (p.31). There is also a growing [Developments in local sports policies in the ‘90s: an exploratory study in 
three municipalities]. Doctoraal dissertation, Amsterdam: University.
awareness that measuring the outcomes of sport-plus • De Knop, P. (2000). Veertig jaar sport- en vrijetijdsbeleid in Vlaanderen 
interventions is very difficult (Patriksson, 1995). Specific [Forty years of sports and leisure policy in Flanders]. Brussel: VUB Press.
(often in time and means restricted) programs are in • De Knop, P. & Walgrave, L. (eds.)(1992), Sport als integratie. Kansen voor 
maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren [Sport as integration. Chances for 
many cases expected to provide a solution for broad socially deprived youth]. Brussel: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
social problems (Weiss, 1993). And as sport is merely an • Elchardus, M., Huyse, L., & Hooghe, M. (2001). Het maatschappelijk 
intermediate means of intervention, it becomes even more middenveld in Vlaanderen. Een onderzoek naar de sociale constructie van 
democratisch burgerschap [The social midfield in Flanders. A study of the 
difficult to determine its impact. Consequently, there is social construction of democratic citizenship]. Brussel: VUBPress. 
a need for a clear conceptual framework regarding the • Elling, A. (2002). Ze zijn er niet voor gebouwd. In- en Uitsluiting in de Sport 
intermediate mechanisms that may underlie good sport- naar Sekse en Etniciteit [They are not built for it. Inclusion and exclusion in 
sport according to sex and etnicity]. Nieuwegein: Arko Sports Media.
plus initiatives. • Hartmann, D. & Depro, B. (2006). Rethinking sports-based community 
It has also become clear that the organized sports sector, crime prevention: A preliminary analysis of the relationship between 
with its much acclaimed benefits for those involved, Midnight Basketball and urban crime rates. Journal of Sport and Social 
Issues, 30(2), 180-196. 
only plays a moderate role in a sport-plus policy aimed • Hellison, D. (1995). Teaching responsibility through physical activity. 
at specific socially deprived groups in society. Some Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 
researchers strongly argue that sports clubs might be the • Hoyng, J., De Knop, P., & Theeboom, M. (1998). Functies en betekenissen 
van sport [Functions and meanings of sport]. Vrijetijdstudies, 16(3), 33-55. 
source of generating or at least amplifying mechanisms • Hylton, K., & Totten, M. (2008). Community Sports Development. In K. 
of inclusion as well as exclusion, and that processes of Hylton and P. Bramham (eds.). Sports Development, Policy, Process and 
bonding and bridging do not necessarily, nor automatically Practice. London: Routledge.
• Keller, H., Lamprocht, M., & Stamm, H. (1998). Social cohesion through 
happen within the structures of a traditional sports club sport. Strasbourg: Committee for the Development of Sport, Council of 
(Bailey, 2007; Elling, 2002). It can be expected that services Europe. 
situated ‘outside’ of their core business (e.g., attracting and • Kruse, S.E. (2006). Review of kicking Aids out: Is sport an effective tool in 
the fight against HIV/Aids? Draft report to NORAD. Unpublished report. 
working with socially deprived youth), are not given any • Patriksson, M. (1995). Scientific Review Part 2. In Council of Europe Press. 
priority and, most likely, will not be provided in an optimal The Significance of sport for society – Health, Socialisation, Economy: A 
way. This is in line with Coalter (2007), who stated that Scientific Review. 8th Conference of European Ministers responsible for 
Sport. Strasbourg: Author.
attempts to use the organized sports sector to achieve • Pawson, R. (2006). Evidence-based policy: A realist perspective. London: 
wider policy goals, can undermine their essential (mostly Sage. 
non-altruistic) purpose, qualities and stability. • Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone. The Collapse and Revival of American 
Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
The unsettled position of the organized sports sector • Scheerder, J. (2004). Spelen op het middenveld. Vrijetijdssport als 
to play a bigger role in a more inclusive sports policy has ontspanning, ontplooiing en ontmoeting [Playing on the midfield. Leisure 
therefore paved the way to other organizational formats sport as recreation, development and encounter]. Tielt: Lannoo.
• Scheerder, J., M. Theeboom, K. Van den Bergh & De Knop, P. (2006). Sport 
(such as neighbourhood sport). It can be expected that en Sociale Cohesie: Een Overzicht van Onderzoeksmateriaal in Vlaanderen 
this trend will have an impact on the future of local sports [Sport and social cohesion. An overview of research material in Flanders]. 
policies. In P. De Knop, J. Scheerder & H. Ponnet (eds.). Sportbeleid in Vlaanderen – 
Volume 2: Studies. Brussel: Publicatiefonds Vlaamse Trainersschool.
• Theeboom, M., & De Knop, P. (1992). Inventarisatie binnen het 
jeugdwelzijnswerk in Vlaanderen [Inventarisation in the youth welfare 
References sector]. In P. De Knop & L. Walgrave (eds.). Sport als integratie. Kansen 
voor maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 119-130). Brussels: Koning 
Boudewijnstichting. 
• Bailey, R. (2007). Youth Sport and Social Inclusion. In N. Holt (ed.). Positive • Theeboom, M., & De Maesschalck, P. (2006). Sporten om de hoek: een 
Youth Development through Sport. London: Routledge. brede kijk op buurtsport in Vlaanderen [Sport around the corner: a broad 
• Breedveld, K., & van der Meulen, R. (2003). Vertrouwen in de Sport. Een look at neighbourhood sport in Flanders]. Sint-Niklaas: ISB.
Empirische Analyse van de Relatie tussen Sportdeelname en Sociaal • United Nations (2005). Sport for Development and Peace: Towards 
Kapitaal [Trust in sport. An empirical analysis of the relationship between Achieving the Millennium Development Goals. New York: United 
sports participation and social capital]. Vrijetijdstudies 20(2), 37-49. • Uslaner, E. (1999). Vrijwilligerswerk en sociaal kapitaal [Voluntary work and 
• Coalter, F. (2007). A wider social role for sport. Who’s keeping the score? social capital]. In P. Dekker (ed.). Vrijwilligerswerk vergeleken, (pp.181-206), 
London: Routledge. Den Haag: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.
• Collins, M. & Kay, T. (2003). Sport and Social Exclusion. London: Routledge. • Weiss, C.H. (1993). Where Politics and Evaluation Research Meet. Evaluation 
• Danish, S.J., Nellen, V.C. (1997). New roles for sport psychologists: Teaching Practice, 14(1), 93-106.
30 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
r Equality.
Sport and Gende
Girls in Focus
rtrud Pfi ster  
Ge xercise and Sport Sciences,
r at the Department of E
Professo
en (Denmark)
University of Copenhag
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 31
ARTICLE
In spite of the well-documented benefi ts of physical activity, 
numerous campaigns advocating the adoption of a healthy lifestyle 
and the endless stream of advice on how to become active and 
healthy, a considerable percentage of the population –more girls and 
women than boys and men– lead a sedentary life. 
In this article I will provide information about the physical activities 
and sport of girls, reasons for their low participation rates in sport 
(for all) and recommendations for measures and programmes which 
encourage and enable girls to become physically active.
Introduction and questions space this article will focus on the girls of the mainstream 
“The King was no longer pleased that his daughter had population. I will refer mainly to the situation in European 
left the straight and narrow paths of his kingdom and countries, although the information and recommendations 
dallied in the by-ways, so he let her have a horse-drawn can be easily applied to other countries and cultures. 
carriage. In this article the term “sport” is used in the broad 
–  ‘Now you don’t have to walk anymore,’ he said. sense of “sport for all”, similar to the term “(recreational) 
–  ‘Now you ought not to walk anymore,’ is what he meant. physical activities”.
And now she couldn’t walk anymore is what he achieved” 
(Anders 1956, 96). Sports Participation 
Günther Anders’s metaphorical commentary on modern Several representative surveys in the EU provide an 
life is today even more appropriate than in 1956. Currently excellent insight into the amount, duration and intensity 
it seems that large parts of the population in Western of physical activities of various groups of the population, 
countries use “carriages” instead of their feet. including adolescents. In addition, in-depth studies 
In spite of the well-documented benefits of physical conducted in many countries, regions and cities give a 
activity, numerous campaigns advocating the adoption good picture of the participation of the inhabitants in 
of a healthy lifestyle and the endless stream of advice sport, e.g. the types of sport, performance levels, motives, 
on how to become active and healthy, a considerable etc.1 
percentage of the population –more girls and women than However, most of the available data are based on 
boys and men– lead a sedentary life. self-reports, which have benefits and disadvantages. 
In this article I will provide information about the Comparisons between studies conducted with 
physical activities and sport of girls, reasons for their low accelerometers and those based on surveys show that 
participation rates in sport (for all) and recommendations the respondents to questionnaires tend to overestimate 
for measures and programmes which encourage and the amount and intensity of their activities. Even so, the 
enable girls to become physically active. The focus on sports participation rates reported in surveys are rather 
childhood and adolescence (10-15 years of age) was low, as indicated, for example, in a report published by the 
chosen because in this phase of life future habits and Willibald-Gebhard-Institute (based in Germany): “European 
tastes are adopted and/or consolidated. In addition, sports clubs have enjoyed constant participation rates 
worldwide studies with similar designs are available for for years. So the degree of organisation in Western 
this age group. European and Scandinavian countries … lies between 50-
However, we must be aware that there are major 70% among children and between 30-50% among young 
differences between girls depending on the circumstances people. However the high degree of participation in sport 
of their lives, including social class, ethnic origin, religion, is not able to compensate for the increasing inactivity in 
culture, material environment and where they live. everyday life. About half of Europe’s young people does 
Muslim girls have, for example, in many ways, similar not get the recommended amount of physical activity 
opportunities for being physically active, but they also needed for good health (controlled moderate physical 
face specific challenges (Pfister 2010). Although the activity per day).”2 
situation of girls with an ethnic minority background The World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office 
is a growing concern in many countries, for reasons of for Europe presented even worse figures in a press release 
32 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
in December 2006: “Only 34% of European young people 
aged 11, 13 and 15 years reported enough physical activity 
to meet current guidelines.”3
This statement is based on a study of “Health 
Behaviour in School-aged Children” (HBSC) that provides 
comprehensive data on activity patterns among children 
and adolescents across Europe.4 
The 2006 HBSC study conducted in 41 European 
countries revealed that 25% of the boys and 19% of the 
girls (13 years) and 19% of the boys and 12% of the girls 
(15 years) were at least vigorously active for 60 minutes 
for five or more days per week (as required in health 
recommendations).5 There are large differences between 
countries: 46% of Slovakian boys (age 15) but only 11% 
of Swedish boys and 29% of Slovakian girls but only 5% 
of girls in France and Portugal met the demands of the 
health experts.6
Surveys conducted in various countries revealed a similar 
picture and showed a dramatic decline in physical activities 
among 13 to 15-year-old girls. The following statement 
issued by the Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation in 
the UK reflects the situation in many countries: “There is 
a crisis in women’s sport and fitness in the UK. More than 
80% of women and girls are not doing enough physical 
activity to benefit their health. Young women are now half 
as active as young men. The situation is forecast to get 
even worse over the next ten years.”7 
But girls are affected by this trend in different ways 
and to different degrees. As studies in various Western 
countries have revealed, a high percentage of adolescent 
girls with a middle or upper-class background engage in 
sport, whereas girls with a working-class or an immigrant 
background are over-represented among the physically 
inactive population.
The Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS), 
developed by the WHO and conducted in numerous 
countries all over the world, confirms the European 
data and shows large gender differences with regard 
to physical activities among young people (aged 13-15), 
differences which are even more significant in Islamic and/
or low-income countries.8
Source: Fotoquelle: LaufReport.de
Types of activity
Some recreational activities such as swimming, cycling 
or inline skating are “gender neutral” and popular among –often unrealistic– dream (Pfister 1993).
both sexes. Other sports and exercises are dominated Boys “appropriate” the environment; they use and enjoy 
by the one or the other sex.9 In spite of culture-specific the outdoors whereas girls prefer to stay inside or near 
sports preferences, similar trends of gendered sports their homes. Research shows that boys explore larger 
practices can be observed in many countries and regions. spaces than girls and that they use parks or streets for 
Boys prefer ball games (football in particular) and risk their sporting activities such as kicking around, bmx 
sports whereas girls opt for expressive/aesthetic activities cycling or parkour, a new form of exercise where the 
such as gymnastics, aerobics and dance. Skateboard parks traceurs move through the city overcoming the obstacles 
are boys’ domains; horse stables are “girls only” places. on their way (Pfister 1993). 
For numerous girls in Western countries horse riding is an The sports choices of girls, particularly their focus on 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 33
organised and relatively expensive activities, clearly Danish research shows that not only the activity rates but 
contribute to their relatively low activity rate. also the fitness of 16 to 19-year-old girls has decreased 
considerably in the last few decades. Only 47% of 16-year-
Physical activities – why are they important? old and 35% of 18-year-old girls have a good degree of 
In the current discourses about public health the drop- fitness. 46% are not satisfied with their weight.10
out rate of girls from sport and physical activities is A number of studies have been able to identify 
considered problematic. Health officials and experts are numerous positive effects of an active lifestyle.11 
concerned about the prevalence of so-called “lifestyle” According to the World Health Organisation, women 
diseases among the population; politicians are worried seem to draw specific benefits: many women suffer from 
about the increasing expenditure on health care. Current “disease processes that are associated with inadequate 
34 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
participation in physical activity”, such as cardiovascular and the decrease in children’s motor skills, the growing 
diseases, diabetes, osteoporosis and breast cancer. concern about inactivity rates contribute to public 
WHO also notes that physical activity is associated with discourses which are coined “healthism”, i.e. the 
improved psychological health “by reducing levels of problematic notion of health as a moral imperative. 
stress, anxiety and depression and can contribute to A “healthism” perspective regards not only body shape 
building self-esteem and confidence.”12 and weight but also participation in physical activities as 
The health benefits of physical activities are not so the measure of both one’s health and one’s “well 
clear for children and youth, not least because potential behaviour” and “political correctness”. Research 
diseases are still years away. However, among other indicates that the increasing pressure to comply with 
leading experts and organisations, the European Heart social norms and rules relating to weight and activity 
Network came to the conclusion that the physical rates can be counterproductive (Dworkin and Wachs 
inactivity of children “harms current and future health” 2009).
(European Heart Network 2001). Therefore, it is important to focus on the numerous 
Together with the debates on the “obesity epidemic” benefits of physical activities for one’s quality of life. 
Source: Right To Play
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 35
Sport and exercise can have positive effects on social, allocation criteria of gender, age, social class and ethnic 
emotional and mental well-being; they may provide background. This allocation is controlled and legitimised 
experiences of satisfaction and joy; they foster social by norms and values and by institutions such as religion, 
networks; and they contribute to empowerment. science, law, administration, education and the media 
(Pfister 2008).
How can we explain gendered sports interests Boys and girls are identified, mostly long before birth, as 
and practices? male and female and confronted with the gender order of 
Socialisation processes their society. They learn how to deal with gendered rules, 
In lifelong processes of socialisation individuals acquire norms, values and paradigms as well as with gendered 
“female” and “male” identities in accordance with the regimes and scripts which provide the guidelines for 
prevailing gender arrangements in a particular society. “appropriate” behaviour, including gendered body and 
Gender is one of the main structuring principles of a movement discourses and practices. They grow up in and 
society which distributes rights and obligations as well as into a gendered world. 
responsibilities and tasks according to the main Socio-ecological approaches, as proposed by 
Hurrelmann (2008) among others, emphasise the 
interactive dimension and the dialectical relations 
between individuals and their social and ecological/
material environment. According to Bilden (1991), 
socialisation is self-training in and through cultural 
practices; Connell (2002) uses the term “active learning”. 
He suggests interpreting the appropriation of gender 
as the result of numerous “projects” in which children 
learn gendered scripts, acquire gender competence and 
develop individual, but at the same time typical, patterns 
of practices. In encounters with the constraints and 
possibilities of the gender order, children (and adults) 
improvise, copy, create and thus develop characteristic 
strategies. “Over time, especially if the strategies are 
successful, they become settled, crystallizing as specific 
patterns of femininity and masculinity” (Connell 2002, 
p. 82). Sports tastes, rules and activities are likewise 
appropriated in socialisation processes, in “self-training 
in and through social practices”. Socialisation into sport 
and physical activities can be described and interpreted 
as (gendered) projects which are influenced by various 
factors and processes as well as persons and institutions, 
among them the family and school.
Several studies indicate that participation in sport is 
socially “inherited” and that parents have a decisive 
influence on the interest of their children in sport and 
games. They provide (gender-specific) toys such as balls 
for sons and Barbie dolls for daughters. Currently a 
huge industry successfully indoctrinates girls to ask for 
pink clothes and Disney princesses. The parents support 
“appropriate” behaviour, sending their sons to soccer 
lessons and the girls to ballet. In addition, fathers and 
mothers serve as male and female role models.
Sport and games are important projects in boys’ peer 
groups; playing together and competing with each other 
strengthens their relations and teaches competition and 
cooperation. Sports skills provide prestige among their 
peers and popularity in male sporting subcultures such 
as the street ball or skateboard scenes. Girls tend to 
play (and talk on the phone) with their best girlfriends. 
36 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
For them fashionable clothes and the right appearance students differently, that girls and boys behave differently 
counts more than sporting skills. Peer relations contribute and that they learn different skills even in countries 
decisively to the construction of gendered sports cultures. where the PE syllabus is not differentiated according to 
Physical Education (PE) in school should be an important gender. 
ingredient in the “sports projects” of children and youth. For large parts of the population sport is “media sport” 
In most countries PE is an obligatory subject in all schools, and the mass media provide similar messages across 
and children with a working-class and/or immigrant the globe about the roles of women and men in the 
background must participate. However, PE seems to world of sport. Sports coverage focuses mostly on men’s 
benefit in particular athletic students whereas pupils sport and largely ignores female athletes and women’s 
without any interest in sporting activities and without any sporting endeavours. Sport, especially sport in the media, 
skills are often marginalised. “constructs men’s bodies to be powerful, women’s bodies 
Qualitative research in a Danish high school revealed, for to be sexual” (Lorber 1994, p. 43).
example, that the mixed-sex physical education lessons The media provide the role models for boys and girls, 
consisted predominately of ball games that attracted in sport as well as elsewhere. Power and strength, risk-
the male students, whilst most girls were either unable taking and aggressive body contact are male domains, 
or unwilling to become involved. As a consequence, whereas femininity is connected mostly with slimness and 
girls participate less intensively in physical education, attractiveness. 
avoid exertion and physical contests or even refuse to In this way girls learn that they are not expected to be 
participate at all (Jørgensen 2006; With-Nielsen and athletic, and they underestimate their sporting skills (see 
Pfister 2010 in press). There are numerous other studies Pfister 1996, p. 51). Whereas boys judge their bodies more 
which show that teachers treat male and female from a functional point of view (however, this is changing), 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 37
the female body is a medium of social and sexual games may result in a decrease of physical activities 
attraction. The aesthetic styling of the body is therefore among boys whereas the increasing popularity of soccer 
of major importance to girls and women. On account among girls may entice them to adopt a more physically 
of the discrepancy between ideals and reality girls and active lifestyle.
women frequently sense a “deficit” with regard to their 
own bodies. Adornment and various “body projects”, from Opportunities and barriers 
using make-up and dieting to body styling, are thus an Participation in sport depends to a large degree on the 
important part of everyday life for girls and women (cf. environment and the opportunities for being physically 
Degele 2004). active. 
Sport is embedded and embodied in habitus (according The WHO highlights a number of reasons for physical 
to Bourdieu 1984); it is a practice of doing gender, and it inactivity among women: “Women often have lower 
has to fit the “taste” of an individual as well as his/her income than men, which may represent a barrier to access 
lifestyle. Sporting practices are inseparably intertwined to physical activities (PA). Women’s workload in the home 
with other life lines and contribute to the construction of may limit the time available for leisure and thus for PA. 
men’s and women’s biographies. Sport is part of “doing Women may have limited mobility to travel to PA facilities. 
gender” and integrated into the gender projects of Cultural expectations may restrict their participation in 
individuals which again support the gendering of sports some form of PA.”13 These barriers also have an impact 
cultures. on the opportunities of girls to participate in sport and 
Sports discourses and practices, however, are constantly exercise.
changing, and these changes also affect the sporting Even in Europe people report widely differing 
activities of adolescents. The propagation of computer opportunities of being able to participate in sport or 
physical activities. Whereas in Scandinavian countries 
more than 80% of the respondents agreed that the area 
where they lived offered many opportunities for being 
physically active, less than 50% of the respondents 
from Portugal were of the same opinion. Similarly, the 
answers referring to the availability of sports centres or 
sports clubs in the neighbourhood showed “North-South” 
differences.14 Based on the comments of the WHO, quoted 
above, it may be assumed that the lack of a sports-
friendly environment affects girls and women to a higher 
degree than the male population. 
As far as we know from available statistics, sports clubs 
have a much larger drop-out rate among adolescent girls 
than among boys. This raises the question whether the 
lack of attractive sports programmes contributes to the 
decrease in sports interest among girls. The same is 
true for the sports and physical activity programmes of 
other sports providers, among them churches or cities. 
Often sport, such as street ball, is used as a means to 
solve problems with violent groups of boys and young 
men. Girls who do not cause visible problems are often 
ignored.
Educating cities – what can be done? 
There are numerous opportunities of influencing the 
physical activity patterns of girls (and boys as well). Some 
of these interventions will need financial and manpower 
resources. On the other hand, men’s sport –for example, 
the construction and maintenance of football stadia or the 
organisation of matches (police, security!!)– costs large 
amounts of money and resources, and nobody complains 
about this. Some of this money could, and should, be 
invested in physical activities for girls and “sport for all” 
38 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
for the population. In many cities this may already be a activities such as rope skipping, skating, climbing on 
reality. climbing walls which allows the participation of larger 
Intervention strategies might include: groups with different skills.
• Information about opportunities for physical activities • Creation of incentives for existing sports providers for 
and their benefits in places where people gather recruiting girls and women.
(schools, workplaces, shopping centres, doctors’ • Information about the barriers and opportunities 
surgeries). for being physically active and education of parents, 
• Creation of a movement-friendly environment, a safe teachers, sport providers, etc. about the benefits of an 
opportunity for jogging, hiking, cycling, playing ball. active lifestyle. 
Children’s playgrounds can be converted into “sports • Changes in the PE curricula and of PE teacher training 
arenas”. If no spaces are available, streets can be closed with the aim of enabling girls to participate in various 
for cars at weekends. sports and physical activities (including those which are 
• Encouragement of the integration of physical activities labelled male sports.
into everyday life, e.g. as a means of transport. • Availability of school yards and gyms for physical 
Campaigns such as “we cycle to work” could be an activities, games, skating, biking, etc. after school hours.
incentive. • Organisation of courses, programmes and/or events for 
• Establishment of sports facilities at a short girls, e.g. skating nights, street ball, girls and women’s 
distance from residential quarters (research shows runs.
that sports facilities are used if they are in walking • Campaigns, e.g. competitions between schools, for the 
distance). best sports programmes for girls, or between clubs with 
• Provision of safe and easy access to existing sports the most female participants in a 10km run.
facilities and programmes (e..g. lights on the ways). • Promotion of female sports stars and/or fit women as 
• Establishment of “sports groups” which meet regularly, role models for girls and women.
walk together to a gym hall or a sports ground, phone I am aware that many cities are already engaged in 
and remind each other, etc. promoting sport and physical activities for girls and 
• Organisation of “sport for all” events, e.g. hiking women and that they are using these, and more and 
afternoons, jogging hours or inline skate nights, or relay maybe totally different, “best practices”. I am also 
runs where members of sports clubs, students of schools aware that my analyses and proposals are not taking 
or employees of a factory or office with at least as many the diversity of girls and women all over the world 
female as male participants compete. into account but are heavily influenced by my Western 
• Adaptation of sports facilities to the needs and wishes of perspective. But I hope that this article is a point of 
girls and women (e.g. separate shower facilities if Muslim departure for increasing efforts and combining forces in 
girls and women are active there). order to improve gender equality in sport as well as in 
• Promotion of inclusive and “girl-friendly” physical other areas of life. 
1. Naul, R. and Hoffmann, D.: Healthy Children in Sound Communities: a Eure- 9–10 July 2009. http://94.23.50.42/youth/documents/A%20snapshot%20
gional community setting project. http://www.wgi.de/media/Pdf/HealthyChil- of%20the%20health%20of%20young%20people%20in%20Europe.pdf; 
dreninSoundCommunity-pic_47434.pdf; see also European Commission 2006.
See also Sallis et al. 2000; Vilhjalmsson and Kristjansdottir,2003; Ringaard 7. http://www.womeninsportconference.com/homepage.asp 
and Nielsen 2004; Seabra et al. 2008 8. Global school-based student health survey (GSHS), initiated by the WHO 
2. http://www.wgi.de/media/Pdf/lifestyle_sedentariness_english_819279.pdf and conducted in numerous countries, shows the same gender-specific 
3. http://www.euro.who.int/mediacentre/PR/2006/20061117_1 patterns of physical activities. http://www.cdc.gov/GSHS/de  
4. The HBSC was initiated in 1982; the first cross-national survey in five 9. Skolebørns deltagelse Ii idræt og andre fysiske aktiviteter i Rudersdal 
countries was conducted in 1983/84; see www.hbsc.org www.cisc.sdu.dk/Publikationer/qKL2006_4.pdf 
5. Since the last survey in 2002, the percentage of active children has 10. http://www.dgi.dk/redaktionen/dui/14-2003/piger.aspx MULD survey 
decreased. The HBSC data provide information about trends, but have to 11. There is an abundance of literature, see e.g. Sundhedsstyrelsen 2006.
be interpreted with caution. Country-specific conditions may not have been 12. http://www.euractiv.com/en/sports/women-sport/article-137664 
satisfactorily taken into consideration. 13. http://www.euractiv.com/en/sports/women-sport/article-137664
6. A snapshot of the health of young people in Europe, a report prepared for 14. Eurobarometer “Physical Activity”; http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/
the European Commission Conference on Youth Health, Brussels, Belgium, archives/ebs/ebs_183_6_en.pdf
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 39
Caxias do Sul (Brazil)
Bibliography • Pfister, G.: Doing Sport ist Doing Gender. In: Farrokhzad, S. and Nikodem, 
C.: Arenen der Weiblichkeit: Frauen, Körper, Sport. Köln: Verlag des 
• Anders, G.: Die Antiquiertheit des Menschen: Über die Seele im Zeitalter Vereins Beiträge zur feministischen Theorie und Praxis e.V. 2008, 13-29.
der zweiten industriellen Revolution. München: Beck 1956. • Pfister, G.: Fitness und Sportengagement als soziales Erbe — theoretische 
• Bilden, H.: Geschlechtsspezifische Sozialisation. In: Hurrelmann, K./Ulrich, Überlegungen und empirische Befunde. In: Müller, N. (ed.): Gesellschaft 
D. (eds.): Neues Handbuch der Sozialisationsforschung. Weinheim/Basel: und Sport als Feld wissenschaftlichen Handelns: Festschrift für Manfred 
Beltz 1991, 279-301. Messing. Niedernhausen: Schors Verlag 2007, 287-307.
• Bourdieu, P.: Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. • Pfister, G.: Muslim Women in the Diaspora: Sport related Theories, 
Harvard University Press 1994. Discourses and Practices – Analysing the Situation in Denmark. In: 
• Connell, R.: Gender. Cambridge: Polity 2002. Benn, T., Pfister, G. Jawad, H. (eds.): Muslim Women and Sport. London: 
• Degele, N.: Sich schön machen: Zur Soziologie von Geschlecht und Routledge 2010 Forthcoming.
Schönheitshandeln. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag 2004. • Pfister, G.: Zwischen neuen Freiheiten und alten Zwängen. Körper- und 
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Fitness. New York: New York University Press 2009. (eds.): Raus aus dem Haus. Mädchen erobern die Stadt. Frankfurt/New 
• European Commission (2006): Eurobarometer: Health and food. Brussels. York: Campus 1996, 45-66.
Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_publication/eb_food_ • Pilgaard, M.: Danskernes motions- og sportsvaner 2007 – nøgletal og 
en.pdf, [accessed 24.11.2009]. tendenser, København: Idrættens Analyseinstitut 2008.
• European Heart Network (ed.): Children and Young People – the • Raudsepp, L. and Viira, R.: Influence of Parents’ and Siblings’ Physical 
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http://www.ehnheart.org/files/phyactivity-084635A.pdf Physical Education 5 (2000), 169-178.
• Hurrelmann, K.: Einführung in die Sozialisationstheorie. Weinheim: Beltz • Ringgaard, L. W. and Nielsen, G. A. Fysisk aktivitet i dagligdagen 
2008. blandt 16-20-årige i Danmark, København: Kræftens Bekæmpelse & 
• Lorber, J.: Breaking the Bowls: Degendering and Feminist Change. New Sundhedsstyrelsen 2004.
York: W.W. Norton & Company 2005. • Sallis, J. F., Prochaska, J. and Taylor, W.: A review of correlates of physical 
• Lorber, J.: Paradoxes of gender. New Haven, London: Yale University Press activity of children and adolescents. IN: Medicine & Science in Sports & 
1994. Exercise 32 (2000), 963-975.
• Naul, R. and Brettschneider, W.-D. (2005). Young people’s lifestyles and • Seabra, A. F. et al.: Associations between sport participation, demographic 
sedentariness in Europe. Acta Universitas Carolinae Kinathropologica, 41 and socio-cultural factors in Portuguese children and adolescents. In: 
(2005), 2, 25-34. European Journal of Public Health 18 (2008), 25-30.
• Pfister, G. and Fasting, K.: Geschlechterkonstruktionen auf dem • Sundhedsstyrelsen: Fysisk Aktivitet og Evidens – Livsstilssygdomme, 
Fussballplatz : Aussagen von Fußballspielerinnen zu Männlichkeits- folkesygdomme og risikofaktorer mv. København: Sundhedsstyrelsen 
und Weiblichkeitskonzepten. In: Jütting, D. (ed.): Die lokal-globale 2006.
Fußballkultur: wissenschaftlich beobachtet. Münster: Waxmann 2004, • Vilhjalmsson, R. and Kristjansdottir, G.: Gender differences in physical 
137-152. activity in older children and adolescents: the central role of organized 
• Pfister, G.: Appropriation of the Environment, Motor Experiences and sport’. In: Social Science & Medicine 56 (2003), 363-374.
Sporting Activities of Girls and Women. In: International Review for • With-Nielsen, N. and Pfister, G.: Gender constructions and negotiations in 
Sociology of Sport 28 (1993), 159-173. PE – case studies. In: Sport, Education and Society, 2010, in print.
40 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
bility for All. 
ort and Accessi
Sp
l cities need
al
Something 
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ra-Beleta Cuyá
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o do w
Enrique Rovi
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onsib ia (Spain)
Architect and Lecturer resp ty of Catalon
cture, International Universi
 School of Archite
the
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 41
ARTICLE
It is essential to incorporate accessibility into all the projects and 
plans in our cities in view of the ageing of the population and the 
improved quality of life demanded by society. Eliminating architectural 
and communication barriers is not simply something needed by people 
with disability, but is also of benefit to all citizens. In my opinion, good 
accessibility is one that exists, but goes unnoticed by most users.
General criteria accessible as possible so as to enhance their autonomy, 
In this 21st century, cities are experiencing many changes: comfort and safety. 
population growth as the result of an extremely rapid rise In this 21st century, the concept of the elimination of 
in the number of foreigners; ageing of the population; an architectural barriers is well known and many countries 
increased number of people living alone; a falling birth have rules and regulations in place regarding this that 
rate, etc. must be adhered to. However, we have to promote 
Improving the quality of life of the population, and accessibility in such a way that it goes unnoticed and 
particularly that of persons with limited mobility and/ costs as little as possible by including it in all designs and 
or impaired communication (PLM), has been one of the their details so as to enhance the quality of the spaces, 
priority aims of the work carried out by governments and elements, services and products used by everyone, 
municipal and local institutions in the developed countries whether or not their abilities are at all limited. This 
in the last few years. Current rules and regulations on this means that accessibility is the feature of town planning, 
matter have contributed to the construction of spaces and buildings, means of transport, communication systems, 
buildings that do not discriminate against any users. furniture, information and signs, goods, products, services 
Our society is experiencing a marked evolution towards and everything around us in our towns and cities that 
the integration of PLM who represent 30% of the facilitates the autonomy of any person and also reveals the 
population of developed countries. This group is defined as abilities of persons with disability.
all those users of the city with limited or impaired mobility, As society more and more demands a better quality of 
whether permanent or temporary, for example, as the life, we must design our cities with the characteristics of all 
result of an injury or having to carry something heavy. persons in mind, including people with major disabilities. In 
There is an increasing desire among the group of persons this way, we will no doubt improve ease of use and safety 
with major disabilities to be present and participate for all citizens, because:
in social life. However, these people cannot be fully –  wherever someone using a wheelchair can move, 
and effectively integrated unless the different spaces everyone else can certainly do so more easily;
and environments (housing, work places, schools and –  if we devise signs suitable for sight- and/or hearing-
universities, services, tourism and leisure facilities, means impaired people, all those of us who can see and hear will 
of transport, public highways, etc.) are accessible so that certainly be able to do so even better, and we will also 
they can lead their daily lives normally and independently. prevent those who are absent-minded (in other words, 
There is a need to eliminate physical and sensorial people who are temporarily blind or deaf) from having 
barriers, bearing in mind that a good design must take accidents; 
into account all the various different users, whatever their 
characteristics and needs, in order to achieve a Design For example, introducing accessibility in a sports facility 
for All which will, in turn, improve the quality of life of all does not consist only in applying a set of corrective 
people. measures into a plan that has already been drawn up, 
Sport is an activity that is always beneficial for improving retouching it or modifying it here or there, but rather in 
everyone’s health and quality of life. Because of our incorporating accessibility as a new variable from the 
professional and work commitments, we normally use outset that will have an influence from the very start on 
sports facilities at particular times of the day. So at 
mid-morning and/or mid-afternoon, these facilities tend 
to be used by children/schools and/or elderly/retired “Good accessibility is that which exists, but goes 
people to improve their physical condition. They all have unnoticed by users, with low or no cost on many 
temporarily or permanently reduced mobility and/or occasions”
impaired communication and need these facilities to be as 
42 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Example of an accessible pedestrian crossing suitable for all users Mountain bike (Girona)
(Barcelona)
the gestation and design of the final solution, taking on number of citizens doing physical and sports activities, 
board the diversity of its end users: including the group of people with major disabilities. And, 
–  persons at the height of their abilities; what is more, we will raise awareness of the issue among 
–  persons whose abilities are temporarily or permanently all the actors involved in promoting sports and physical 
limited (persons with sensory limitations on their sight activity, and the general public who share the use of the 
and/or hearing; persons able to walk, but with difficulty; facility in question with people with major disabilities (PMD).
wheelchair users; persons with cognitive difficulties; etc.). With accessibility we ensure that children with disabilities 
Fortunately, there is practically no incompatibility have equal opportunity with regard other children to take 
between the needs of these two groups, so Designing for part in recreational, leisure and sports activities, including 
All consists in having thorough knowledge of, and not those engaged in at school.
simply being aware of, the characteristics of persons with It is important for accessibility to be implemented in 
major disabilities in order to achieve designs which, by all sport facilities even in those not so common such as 
incorporating small details, often involving no more than golf, horse riding, trekking, volleyball, beach volleyball, 
making a space a couple of centimetres wider, are all scuba diving, sailing, target shooting, hiking, flying model 
suitable for a greater number of people, including those aeroplanes, cycling, skiing, water skiing, rugby, etc.
with severe disabilities. And yet these slight modifications 
are in many cases not even appreciable. The main difficulties for doing sports activities 
For all these reasons, I dare say that one of the basic sets facing persons with limited mobility and/or 
of measurements employed in architecture this century impaired communication (PLM)
will be that of the wheelchair (1.20 m x 0.70 m), because The commonest difficulties encountered every day by PLM 
wherever a wheelchair can get through, everyone else will wanting to do some kind of sports activity are: 
certainly be able to get through more easily. Therefore •  Difficulties in manoeuvring which people with major 
the dimensions of a wheelchair are one of the sets of limitations come up against for moving in a straight line, 
measurements determining the need for space in order going through a door, transferring, etc.
for users to be able to manoeuvre, go from one level to • Difficulties for moving from one level to another because 
another, reach objects and control their balance. Similarly, of stairs or high steps without a handrail, lack of lifting 
signs and information designed for people with visual appliances for wheelchair users and the construction of 
and/or auditory disabilities will undoubtedly improve very steep ramps.
perception of them by all citizens who can see and hear • Control and balance difficulties faced by people who need 
without any difficulty. the aid of a handrail or bars providing grip and support to 
keep their balance while effecting the different types of 
Accessibility in sports facilities transfer; when walking on smooth and slippery surfaces; 
We must guarantee the accessibility, use and enjoyment or in using switches, handles, taps, etc. that are not fitted 
of the spaces, itineraries, elements, services, goods and with a lever or pushbutton.
products of sports facilities, without any architectural or • Difficulties encountered by persons with sensory 
communication barriers. In this way, we will increase the disabilities in reaching devices and information by hand, 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 43
Swimming pool suitable for all users, with a ramp and stairs for getting into the water. Municipal sports complex in Sant Esteve de Sesrovires 
(Barcelona)
sight or hearing; in reaching objects in the horizontal there are changing rooms, these are also included in the 
or vertical plane; in detecting or avoiding obstacles and study.
holes; finding directions; and communicating with the • Furniture and equipment for use by the public: a study 
environment. is made of the design and location of the items of 
furniture, such as counters where the public is attended 
Priority actions for achieving total accessibility in to, telephone booths, tables, etc. The places reserved 
a sports facility building for spectators in wheelchairs or with some sensory 
• Access: a study is made to see whether access is on impairment and those accompanying them are also 
the level or there are any projections or differences in included under this heading in venues for watching 
height, or there is an alternative itinerary; and whether sports, stands, terraces and the like.
there are appropriate access controls, doors and opening • Signs and communication: these are studied at 
systems, flooring, slopes, lighting and contrasting colours the construction stage of buildings, in ephemeral 
and textures, and whether there are suitably signposted architecture, in exhibition items, information panels and 
parking places reserved for vehicles of persons with documentation to be given to the general public, making 
limited mobility. sure they are also accessible to sight- and/or hearing 
• Horizontal movement: a study is made of the suitability impaired persons.
of the vestibules, reception areas and places where the 
public is attended to for persons with physical and/or Barcelona, an educational, sporting and accessible 
sensory disabilities; of the suitability of the information city
and signs for sight/hearing impaired persons; of the Thanks to the Olympic and Paralympic Games held in 
interior itineraries and the exterior itineraries adjacent Barcelona in 1992, the city was transformed. Major road 
to the building, looking at the dimensions of the routes, infrastructures were put in place, with ring roads linking 
the changes of direction and the access landing, the the different competition areas, making the city suitable 
doors, the flooring, the banisters and handrails, possible for persons with disabilities: pedestrian crossings with 
obstacles, height differences and whether they can be ramps along their full width and equipped with acoustic 
overcome by ramps or not, as well as the lighting and its traffic lights; public transport with low-deck buses, taxis 
possible contrasts. accessible to wheelchair users, Metro stations with lifts 
• Vertical movement: for buildings of two or more storeys from street level, and toilets suitable for PLM all over the 
a study is made of the elements used for this vertical city. The city’s airport, hotels and camp sites were also 
communication, be they stairs, ramps and/or lifts. After adapted for use by clients and guests with disabilities, 
this analysis if required changes are introduced in order benefitting all citizens, as they improved their ease of use 
to also allow their use by persons with limited mobility and safety.
and/or impaired communication. For the first time, the Paralympic Games, which are the 
• Toilets and changing rooms: a study is made of the biggest gathering of competitive sports in the world for 
toilets that can be used by persons with limited mobility people with physical and/or sensory disabilities, were held 
and their size in relation to the toilets for general use. If in the same sports facilities as the Olympic Games. 
44 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Source: Special Olympics Catalunya
At Barcelona ’92 all the sports events attracted a various facilities and the elimination of the architectural 
large number of spectators. This led to increased social and communication barriers existing in them prior to the 
awareness of such matters in the city and its surrounding setting up of the Accessibility Area in the Paralympics 
districts, no doubt helping, in the decades following the Division of the Games’ Organising Committee (COOB’92).
Games, to make access to physical and sporting activities Using the same sports competition and training facilities 
by persons with disabilities a more attainable goal in the for the Olympic Games and the Paralympics resulted in 
city and the towns around it. fully accessible sports facilities, an economic saving for 
The working methodology of the Games’ Organising the organisers and amenities that, after the Games, can 
Committee consisted in including the largest number of be used by all citizens for their sports activities, whether 
such access improvements on a permanent basis in the or not they have any disabilities. The same thing occurred 
works and thereby obtaining a significant number of sports with the buildings, the Olympic Village and, particularly, 
facilities, amenities, Olympic and Paralympic housing, the means of transport that the inhabitants of Barcelona 
means of transport and sign/communication systems that now use every day. 
are perfectly accessible by persons with limited mobility Today Barcelona is a city with a long sports tradition that 
and/or sensory impairments. has a large powerful network of associations born of its 
This work was carried out in collaboration with various citizens’ desire to organise themselves and set up sports 
teams of professionals and those in charge of the clubs and companies with the capacity to promote sport, 
technical direction and control of the works, developers compete at a high level and manage sports facilities with 
and builders, etc. operating in the Games’ amenities and great efficiency.
facilities. This led to these teams becoming highly aware 
of the issue, which, together with the fact that their work Proposals for the future
gained recognition in the sector, led in turn to the spread • Foster the creation of sports facilities in cities and 
of the solutions adopted to enable access by PLM to rural areas as centres for social, cultural and sports 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 45
activities, accessible to people with any kind of disability, References
encouraging social interaction and broadening their 
function as places where people of all ages meet each • Guía de accesibilidad para empresas.
Authors: Enrique Rovira-Beleta Cuyás / Ana Folch Mendes.
other and can combine leisure and family life. Fundación Adecco / Club Excelencia en Sostenibilidad (2009).
• Promote sports courses for people with disabilities • Guía de la Barcelona accesible.
in: schools, hospitals and rehabilitation centres, and Authors: Enrique Rovira-Beleta Cuyás / Ana Folch Mendes.
Viena Ediciones (2006).
institutions and associations of people with disabilities. • Accesibilidad en el medio físico para personas con ceguera o deficiencia 
• Prepare a basic guidebook on the care of persons visual.
with disabilities to be distributed to all sports facility Dirección General. Departamento de Servicios Sociales para Afiliados. 
Sección de Acción Social e Integración Laboral. 
professionals providing them with information on how to ONCE (Organización Nacional de Ciegos Españoles) (2003).
treat and manage the activities of persons with limited • Accesibilidad para personas sordas. Recopilación de barreras de 
mobility and/or impaired communication. comunicación y sus soluciones.
ACAPPS – Associació Catalana per a la Promoció de les Persones Sordes,
• Set up municipal guidance and advice specialised FESOCA – Federació de Sords de Catalunya (2003).
services for people responsible for sports facilities that • White paper on accessibility.
can also inform the persons with disability themselves of Author: Enrique Rovira-Beleta Cuyás.
Documents of the Museum.
the help and grants available for them to do sport. Olympic Museum collection published by the International Olympic 
• Prepare a “guide to good accessibility practices for sports Committee (2002).
facilities (elimination of architectural and communication • Codi d’accessibilitat de Catalunya.
Departament de Benestar Social, Generalitat de Catalunya (1995)
barriers)” with guidelines on how to proceed when 
designing and managing urban and architectural spaces, 
their communication and information systems, their 
goods and services, and their usability by persons with 
major disabilities and/or persons with temporarily limited 
mobility/impaired communication, to supplement and 
expand on the rules and regulations on accessibility in 
each country. 
Source: Special Olympics Catalunya
Experiences
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 47
EXPERIENCE
Get Moving and Get in Shape, 
experience of the Campaign in 
Mexico City
Sonia Aguirre Garcés
Director of Health Promotion;
José Luis Navarro Paredes
Coordinator of Health Promotion and Ageing Culture;
Mónica Hurtado González
Assistant Director of Promotion for At-Risk Groups,
City of Mexico
In recent decades, the living conditions and lifestyles of the Mexican 
population have been modifi ed substantially. Such modifi cations are seen, 
among others, in signifi cant changes in eating habits and reduced physical 
activity, factors that are closely linked to a greater risk of developing 
excess weight and obesity, as well as to chronic diseases. 
The trend cannot be reversed with curative strategies alone; we need to 
act on aspects that are closely linked to the change in lifestyle in order to 
infl uence healthy behaviour and attitudes that will improve the quality of 
life of the inhabitants of Mexico City.
After one year, the “Get Moving and Get in Shape” campaign in Mexico 
City continues to gain importance in the public sphere, seeking to raise 
awareness in the population in favour of adopting healthy eating habits and 
an active lifestyle. 
Background In turn, teenagers spend on average more than 12 hours a 
One of the main risk factors associated to the current week in front of screens (television, computer, video games) 
epidemiological profile of Mexico is the growing problem and 8 out of 10 adults aged over 30 do no physical activity 
of excess weight and obesity at all stages of life, which of any kind.
has grown sharply in the last 20 years, making a In the light of this situation, the Department of Health of 
comprehensive intervention necessary in order to stop this the Federal District has implemented the Programme for 
trend. the Prevention and Control of Excess Weight and Obesity. 
The capital of the country, the Federal District, is a place Its aim is to develop technical and operational strategies to 
where excess weight and obesity have increased over the promote health and healthy lifestyles as well as to provide 
national average in all age groups, as follows: it is found in medical attention and epidemiological control. This is done 
8 out of 10 women, 7 out of 10 men and almost 4 of every through comprehensive and specialised attention to excess 
10 children of school age, in other words around 5 million weigh and obesity at Health Centres and Specialist Clinics, 
people in the capital suffer from it, out of a population of but above all through the creation of the “Get Moving and 
over 8 million inhabitants. Get in Shape” awareness campaign.
48 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
The campaign guidelines for healthy eating through educational 
The area responsible for the execution of the campaign activities and promoting physical activity among 
is the Directorate of Health Promotion through the other promotional matters through the School Health 
Coordinator of Health Promotion and Ageing Culture’s programme which has already been implemented in 240 
Sub-Directorate of Health Promotion for At-Risk Groups primary schools, and in the secondary schools included 
at Government events and the Healthcare Jurisdictions in the Universal Baccalaureate Stimulus Programme 
at Health Centres. The team is made up of doctors, (PREBU) “PREPA SI” in Mexico City.
nutritionists, physical activators, social workers and health • Get moving in the park. Actions to promote physical 
promoters. activity in open spaces where people meet to get exercise.
The general aim of the campaign is to generate an • Get moving for your health. These are actions that 
extensive informed and organized social movement to contribute to the dietary treatment of users of the health 
promote healthy lifestyles, through actions to provide services through a range of material and training of staff. 
eating guidelines and promote physical activity. The 
specific goals of the campaign include: The experience
1. Increasing awareness among inhabitants of the risk of The campaign activities started in March 2008 on a 
being overweight or obese through education for health sporadic basis with the “Get moving in everyday life”, 
and promotional and preventive actions. strategy at mass fairs held at different places in the city. 
2. Increasing and strengthening actions that provide Likewise, in April the activities were added to the Sunday 
guidelines to good eating and physical activity to favour the cycle riding activities of the “Get on your Bike” Programme 
adoption of healthy lifestyles by the population. organized by the Secretariat of the Environment at the 
3. Detecting and referring cases to the network of Health Paseo de la Reforma (a busy and important avenue in the 
Centres in Mexico City. Mexican capital), an activity which is still carried out. 
The campaign is based on developing 6 strategies with However, the “Get Moving and Get in Shape” campaign 
the aim of achieving wider cover of the population in its started officially on 6th November 2008 with a mass Latin 
habitual environments and activities: dance class, and with mass promotion and advertising 
• Get moving in everyday life. This strategy aims to offer actions, attended by 5,000 people. 
information and guidelines for healthy eating at locations The activities of the “Get moving in everyday life” 
with the presence of a large number of people, such as strategy have revolved around physical activity sessions, 
mass events and fairs. forums providing nutritional information and modules 
• Get moving at the office. A strategy aimed at civil at which weight, height, waist and hip measurements 
servants of the Government of the Federal District, to are taken, which are the basic indicators for determining 
promote physical activity, provide guidelines on how to the state of nutrition of a person. Based on the results, 
eat healthily and teach some basic techniques that help to personalized advising is offered and referral to the Health 
handle stress. Centres for medical and nutritional attention.
• Get moving in the city. The aim of this strategy is to In turn, the “Get moving at school” strategy, through the 
display key messages of the campaign in public spaces “PREPA SI” Programme, has offered nutritional advising 
and junctions with heavy traffic. services to approximately 3,000 secondary school pupils. 
• Get moving at school. A strategy aimed at offering Since the campaign started, its activities have managed 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 49
to position themselves firmly, which has made it possible Taking the “Get moving at the office” strategy to 
for the inhabitants of the city to seek out the attention government employees of Mexico City is also a priority, 
modules on a habitual basis, to carry out physical activities and the process to apply this strategy has already started 
and review their state of nutrition. and the first results are expected to be available soon.
As an example of this positioning, the first anniversary In turn, “Get moving for your health” is already working 
was marked by a celebration which brought together on the training programme for the team of staff, in order 
approximately ten thousand people of different age to use the material prepared by the Directorate of Health 
groups who had benefited from the campaign, carrying out Promotion which will start to be distributed soon at 
activities with the use of hula hoops. diabetes clinics and at medical specialty units (UNEMES), 
In a year of uninterrupted activities, around 1 million 300 to support the treatment of people with chronic diseases 
thousand people have been reached and have got moving such as diabetes, hypertension and of course excess 
and have received advice on healthy eating, which means weight and obesity.
that almost 15% of the total population of Mexico City has The next goal of the campaign as a whole will be to 
received some kind of service through the “Get Moving and work on better positioning by reinforcing strategies such 
Get in Shape” campaign. as “Get moving in the city”, and starting up “Get moving 
in the park” so that the population is completely aware 
The future of the importance of a healthy diet and daily physical 
The “Get moving at school” strategy in primary schools is activities to improve their quality of life, on one hand, 
a priority, because of the benefits that can be obtained in and help to slow down the trend of increased numbers 
the form of the quality of life of the children when they are of overweight and obese people and the associated 
adults, thanks to promoting healthy eating habits and an diseases, on the other. 
active lifestyle. 
50 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
EXPERIENCE
The Granollers Cup, handball that 
makes a city 
Josep Maria Junqueras Pujadas
Sports Councillor of the City of Granollers (Spain)
In Granollers, sport and education have a fi fe of their own. Sporting 
organizations collaborate to make the city, to build projects. Granollers 
Handball Club, with 66 years of history, is one of the most committed, 
and the Granollers Cup is one of its best initiatives. Competition, effort, 
tournament, commitment, resolve, but also companionship, solidarity, 
knowledge, understanding, affection, friendliness and friendship. The city 
participates enthusiastically in the Granollers Cup, an event that, after 
eleven years, has become a tradition and is now a permanent fi xture in our 
festive and social calendar.
Granollers has a large number of sportsmen and 
women, sports organizations and clubs. Our city can 
be regarded as the birthplace of Spanish handball. It was 
here that the first handball players in Spain were seen, 
and where Granollers Handball Club, founded in 1944, has 
obtained a number of sporting awards over the last 66 
years: several national and international championships 
and the satisfaction of being the first Spanish club to win 
a European title. But the pride of the city, its greatest 
satisfaction, is its sporting youth. Training different 
generations of players who have obtained titles in all age-
group categories, from the 8-10 and 11-12 categories, to 
the junior categories up to the age of 18. These players go 
on to form part of the club’s first team as well as the first 
team of other Spanish and European clubs. It is, therefore, 
the club’s youth training, its educational project, that is at 
the heart of the club’s structure. This is its most profound number of national and international tournaments and is 
meaning and is what determines the goals for its projects. always present at the best competitions. This fact makes 
Sport, education and city, three words that clearly it possible to achieve one of the club’s main goals: to 
express the event we are presenting: the Granollers Cup. promote handball and its sporting and formative values 
It is an international handball competition organized by and to become a proud sign of identity for Granollers. 
Granollers Handball Club, with the participation of the This has also been the fundamental reason behind the 11 
city, that mobilizes more than 3,000 young people aged editions of the Granollers Cup that have been held so far 
between 10 and 20, and is held in the last week of June. and which have made Granollers, for one week in the year, 
This club, with its tradition and history, has maintained the world capital of handball. The club and the City Council 
excellent relations with several clubs in Spain and other have worked to build a sporting, educational and cultural 
countries around the world. It takes part regularly in a event that is an attraction for sportsmen and women and 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 51
allows cultural and social organizations to participate in Federations to guarantee a good competition. The Sports 
a common project. A project that involves the essential Palace in Granollers is the unsurpassable organizational, 
participation of dozens of volunteers and of many citizens management and leisure centre for the event. This 
who play an active role in this activity, which has become, municipal sports facility, which has been used in the 
without a shadow of a doubt, a new part of our heritage. Olympic Games, has a bar, outlet for selling competition 
What has made the Granollers Cup today a worldwide products and a medical service. 
focal point for handball? In our opinion, this is the result of 
an interesting sum of factors: • To carry out this project, the most important asset is 
the human capital: people. Granollers is a city of major 
• Granollers, a municipality with 60,455 inhabitants sporting events and the collaboration of volunteers is 
in the province of Barcelona, is a city with good fundamental. The Granollers Cup can be held because 
communications, close to the main road and rail more than 150 volunteers are involved in it. Group guides, 
infrastructures of Catalonia. Right next to the AP-7 timekeepers and scorekeepers, information attendants, 
motorway, connecting the city to the interior of the computer operators, vendors of souvenirs... Many of 
peninsula via Lleida and Zaragoza, and the Mediterranean these volunteers have links to the club: parents, board 
coast, from Andalusia to France; two railway lines that members and players, but there are also people outside 
stop at the city which, via Barcelona, take you anywhere. of the club who for years have been devoted these days 
And close to Barcelona airport, 40 minutes away by car. to collaborating with the tournament. 
With many places of tourist interest within a radius of 
20 km (Barcelona, Catalan Modernist Trail, the Montseny • Another fundamental aspect for the success of the 
Natural Park, and the coast of the Maresme). With a Granollers Cup is its planning. When the school year 
wide and extensive range of accommodation possibilities starts, in the month of September, the organization of 
(1,200 hotel beds and 17 schools in Granollers, as well the Granollers Cup for the following year also starts. The 
as summer camp facilities and hostels in neighbouring club announces the tournament on its website and by 
towns and villages). And, above all with a structure mail. The dates (last week in June) and the outline of the 
of sports facilities capable of hosting an event of this competition are determined, and its image is presented. 
magnitude (seven regulation-sized 20m x 40m indoor The term for registering to participate also commences. 
courts and another seven outdoor fields, all with Starting in January, in conjunction with the Education 
changing-rooms and showers, within a radius of 500 m). Service of the City Council, the schools that will become 
accommodation during the competition are visited. 
• Right from the first year, the Granollers Cup has been Together with the headmaster of each school, the 
noted for its good organization, focused on the players most suitable locations are sought and the regulatory 
and their needs. A schedule received in advance and framework is agreed, which will be distributed to the 
assignment of teams to their accommodation, an group co-ordinators. This is also the time to define the 
efficient canteen service with suitable meals, a fleet of zones that will be used by the organization, the dining 
coaches to transport players from their accommodation areas, signalling, transport, welcoming services... During 
to the handball court and professional refereeing the month of March, the Federations are contacted to 
provided by the Catalan and the International Handball agree on refereeing and possible training courses and 
52 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
• Finally, this tournament is also exceptional thanks to its 
small and large details. The people of Granollers live the 
tournament, they live it from the courts and fields of play, 
but they also live it with friendliness and acceptance: the 
men and women of Granollers act as hosts and hostesses 
for the players, who, rather than participants, feel like 
guests in the city. Granollers is handball – of course – but 
it is more than that. In the Granollers Cup, the competition 
is complemented with a range of educational, social and 
cultural activities that ensure that the visitors take away 
with them images and knowledge of Granollers that they 
could not get just from the handball courts. In our city, 
we like to say that Granollers is historically a crossroads, 
where people meet, interact and then each one returns 
home with a bag full of memories, experiences, addresses 
and friends. The Granollers Cup is one of the best 
conferences with the participation of technical experts examples of this. Young people take advantage of this 
from all round the world. The registration period ends in event to know the reality of other countries and to have 
April, with the demand from teams wishing to participate friends in the five continents. To make their world a 
often being higher than the capacity the city can slightly bigger and more comprehensible place. 
offer. The last organizational task is to co-ordinate the 
functions of the volunteers in the sports, logistical In short, Granollers is identified with the Granollers Cup, 
and informational areas. The City Council of with the project of Granollers’ Handball Club and with the 
Granollers provides organizational support and the sport of handball. The city hosts with enthusiasm an event 
use of the sporting and educational facilities. It also that, after eleven years, has become a tradition and a 
contributes a specific grant. The Provincial Authority permanent fixture in our festive and social calendar. The 
of Barcelona (Diputació de Barcelona) also collaborates club and the city will continue working to make sport an 
financially. element of civic and universal construction.  
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 53
EXPERIENCE
Adji and vê: Two games that 
teach for life
Dakpè Sossou
Mayor of Lokossa (Benin)
Lokossa, now known as the “City of Hope”, has been advancing 
for some years now along the decided line of revalorising and 
promoting its traditional games, mainly vê and adji. Those games 
have attracted much attention from the local authorities of 
Lokossa thanks to their role in the education of adolescents, in 
addition to the mere pleasure that they provide for players. 
Lokossa, a municipality with 77,065 inhabitants, is an player has four marbles per pit and the object is to capture 
open city that is on the move. For precisely that reason the marbles in the opponent’s pits. 
it has been known for some time now as the “City of Hope”. On the other hand, vê is known as the game of dexterity. 
In spite of the modernisation that is sweeping all lands As such, the object is to measure each player’s skill. 
around the world, Lokossa still highly prizes its traditional Naturally, it is set up on two opposing sides, placed at 
values. This would explain the preservation of the games a distance of four, five or six metres from each other, 
adji and vê, which today constitute essential spaces for the depending on the players’ ages, and consisting of an equal 
transmission of good manners and principles of citizenship number of marbles (10, 12, 15 or more) arranged in a line, 
for a better world. at regular intervals of 10 to 15 centimetres. The best player 
It is not at all unusual in Lokossa at the weekend or (i.e. the more skilful one) wins when he is able to hit all the 
sometimes during the week to see young and elderly other player’s marbles as quickly as possible.
people sitting under a tree or a grass roof on the public It is important to note that in the outings organised after 
squares, partaking of these games, which, as more than boys’ circumcision, vê is played to teach the “future man” 
simple pastimes, provide occasion for transmission of qualities of dexterity.
universal moral values for individuals’ self-improvement, The games of adji and vê are now the most treasured and 
but also, and above all, for the local development of the safeguarded pastimes among the cultural and traditional 
community. heritage of the Lokossa municipality.
These games are genuine vectors for development and Since it requires quick mental calculation, adji obliges 
expression of friendship between populations and they the players to be very good at mathematics. They need to 
foster dialogue between the different generations and the count quickly the number of marbles that they have to win 
breaking down of certain cultural barriers. from one or another of their opponent’s pits and at the 
Adji dates back to very ancient times and is considered same time prepare to play in another pit if their opponent 
a game of strategy, like chess. It is played throughout moves marbles to a given pit. The players’ mastery of the 
Africa, as well as in Brazil. It is known by different names rules of equations, of addition and subtraction, provides 
depending on the region, such as adi, adita-ta, adji-boto them with the ability to parry their rival’s tactics. 
(for the Ewe in Ghana and Surinam), awalé (Ivory Coast), Like adji, vê requires a sense of psychology and poise, 
awari, awélé (Ivory Coast and Ghana), ayo or ayo-ayo (for presence of mind and the courage to make daring moves.
the Yoruba in Nigeria), ourin or ourri (Cabo Verde), oware The players need to concentrate and especially 
or owaré (for the Akan in Ghana), wari (Caribbean), and so maintain an objective view. After each successful play of 
on. In English it is often called awari. The game is played a movement of marbles, there will be a round of gibes 
on a carved board with twelve pits, six per opponent. Each from all sides to amuse the onlookers, or jokes are told, or 
54 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
stories of the exploits of ancestors such as the bravery of a Along those same lines, the ongoing efforts of UNESCO 
grandparent during a hunt, and so on. are aimed at having each people carefully preserve its 
This opportune moment for the circulation of proverbs, original values in order to ensure a permanent wealth of 
adages and other metaphors to describe and make cultures for a fruitful dialogue among communities.
fun of the people and their lives can also foster citizen Should we refer back here to the provisions of the Charter 
participation in local development. While one and another adopted by the International Association of Educating 
comment on the actions and initiatives of local authorities, Cities? The intent of Section 2 on the Commitment of 
from the most praiseworthy to the less edifying, the City is clear where the first paragraph of Principle 
commitment, patriotism and selfless conduct are taught. 7 provides that “The city must know how to discover, 
In short, within the circles where the games of adji and preserve and display its own complex identity. This will 
vê are played, mutual respect is the rule, because here make it unique…”. Further, Principle 10 provides that “The 
we learn not only the virtues of work well done, but also municipal administration must equip the city with spaces, 
respect for our neighbours. The ability to remain calm, facilities and public services that are suitable for the 
develop one’s intellect, defend one’s dignity, gain self- personal, social, moral and cultural development of all its 
esteem and demonstrate modesty are further qualities inhabitants, paying special attention to children and youth.”
linked to the practice of these games. To that end, the City Council has always included a budget 
Given that circumstance, the City Council has decided item to support and encourage the promotion of the 
to promote these games, which are enlisted as tools different matters provided for by law. Furthermore, within 
for development. Legislation on decentralisation in the that framework a team of young players of vê this year 
Republic of Benin confers upon the local authority (the represented the city at the National Games Championships 
mayor) the prerogatives of judicious management of held in June 2009 at Lokossa. In the end, the local team 
cultural heritage. Thus, article 102 of Law 97/029, on the from Lokossa took second place. It is important to note 
organisation of municipalities within the Republic of Benin, that a competition is held each year for the best players 
provides that “the local community has, rather than the of adji, drawing substantial crowds from all the districts 
right, the duty of encouraging cultural, sports, youth and and neighbourhoods of the city. In view of the success of 
recreational activities by providing material and financial this initiative, the City Council has made 13 February the 
assistance to the structures and bodies responsible for official day of traditional games in Lokossa. Thus, starting 
such activities”. That provision is further supported by on 13 February 2010, a number of teams from the different 
the following article of the same law, which provides that districts of Lokossa will face off, to celebrate the values of 
“the Municipality will assure the preservation of the local tradition and the wealth of the cultural heritage that we 
cultural heritage”. have safeguarded. 
Young people and adults playing Adji The Mayor of Lokossa, Mr. Sossou, playing vê
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 55
EXPERIENCE
The General State of Sports 
Nicole Dreyer 
Deputy Mayor responsible for Early Childhood, Educational Actions and School Life;
Serge Oehler
Deputy Mayor responsible for Sport, 
City of Strasbourg (France) 
Sports have become a social and cultural phenomenon of prime 
importance for people of all ages, particularly thanks to their educational 
value. In order to ascertain the expectations expressed by different 
groups in the area of sports and to allow the defi nition of a sports policy 
that is appropriate to the expectations of the general public and to real 
needs, the City of Strasbourg has undertaken a decided and participatory 
initiative: the General State of Sports. That consultation, which evidences 
a public wish to arrive at a collective defi nition of the city’s sports policy, 
has been conceived around a variety of themes, taking into account 
especially the educational value of sports. 
Using a participatory democracy process, the City possible to work on guidelines and areas of action of the 
of Strasbourg, a municipality with a population of new sports policy that will be implemented through action 
276,063 inhabitants, has attempted to gather the opinions programmes and operational projects.
and suggestions of its citizens, associations, institutions That consultation, which evidences a public wish to arrive 
and all those involved in sports in the city regarding the at a collective definition of the city’s sports policy, has been 
practice of sports. conceived around a variety of themes, taking into account 
Sports have become a social and cultural phenomenon of especially the educational value of sports.
prime importance for people of all ages, particularly thanks The educational component of the municipal sports policy 
to their educational value. contributes to access to sports activities for all, with the 
In order to ascertain the expectations expressed by aim of developing the benefits that can be gained through 
different groups in the area of sports and to allow the sports, such as social integration, health, wellbeing, and 
definition of a sports policy that is appropriate to the so on. In that regard, the areas where the Strasbourg city 
expectations of the general public and to real needs, government will take action are mainly leisure and spare 
the City of Strasbourg has undertaken a decided and time, health and wellbeing, development of children and 
participatory initiative: the General State of Sports. young people, prevention and social integration, as well as 
The consultation of the city’s inhabitants by means of the contribution of sports to community life in the city.
a questionnaire and individual interviews (in total 1,400 Specifically, those actions take the form of different 
people have participated) and the organisation of 4 activities. During the school year, the initiatives of the City 
conference-debates on sports open to the general public of Strasbourg are channelled through projects such as 
have allowed the establishment of an overview of physical activity programmes at gymnasiums: 9,000 youths taking 
activity and the practice of sports in the city. The outcome part in and benefiting from 195 hours weekly of scheduled 
of this diagnosis was presented to the largest possible activities in gymnasiums; actions within the framework 
number of attendees in the course of a morning session of the Local Educational Agreement comprising 25 time 
held to sum up the results. This diagnosis has likewise made slots weekly; entry for school groups to the Baggersee 
56 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
lake (2,800 children yearly) to allow them to learn Their actions also take into account public health aims 
about physical activities outdoors; activities for senior by making young people aware of the benefits of sports, 
citizens and handicapped people; swimming lessons for the importance of nutrition and the dangers of risk-taking 
schoolchildren (17,000 children yearly), and introduction behaviours. They also take an active part in the integration 
to skating (5,000 children yearly). During the summer, the of handicapped individuals. The programmes in place also 
programme entitled “Sports Passion” enlivens the different contribute to school success and integration of children 
neighbourhoods of the city with multiple and varied sports into their schools and neighbourhoods, for a better balance 
activities in public parks, at swimming pools and on the between school and extracurricular activities. 
streets. 25,000 people take part in the summer activities The City of Strasbourg also supports initiatives taken 
within the framework of the Sports Passion programme, by local associations to promote the educational value 
showing citizens’ interest in sports and physical activities. of sports. In that regard, it can contribute financing and 
By means of its Directorate of Sports, the City of provide material assistance by allowing access to facilities 
Strasbourg contributes to fostering the practice of or supplying a range of different logistic means to ensure 
sports in the city and its different neighbourhoods. The that actions are accomplished without problems. 
Department of Sports and Physical Activity, forming part In conclusion, actions are taken in all the city’s 
of the Active Life Service, assures all these actions. Thus, neighbourhoods and they are directed at young and elderly 
over thirty sports monitors take part in the development people, and at everyone regardless of any handicap. They 
of the educational value of sports in the city of Strasbourg. concern both individuals and groups who practise sports.
Their actions aimed at all sectors of the public allow them This new policy is subject to ongoing evaluation. For that 
to encourage people to take up sports at the individual, purpose an observatory of sports practices and physical 
group and even family levels, by promoting meetings activity has been established to ensure that supply keeps 
among different neighbourhoods, cultures and generations. pace with demand. 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 57
EXPERIENCE
Montevideo, a Healthy City 
Gonzalo Halty 
Director of Sport, City of Montevideo (Uruguay)
Advocating for a policy of healthy cities obliges the authority undertaking 
this task to act decisively in all matters concerning the articulation of 
(public or private) assets and services in the territory, to improve the 
quality of life of the population.
Having made a precise diagnosis, work commenced • To draw up projects together with the community. 
on designing this programme which seeks, in general • To create different healthy spaces in parks, squares and 
terms, to devise a policy for undertaking simultaneous public areas of the city.
activities to act directly on the problematic situations • To create plans and projects that complement the spaces 
detected. By way of example, 60.3% of the population did created.
not participate in any kind of physical activity, and only • To work in accordance with the principles of the Sporting 
25% of those who did take some form of exercise were Infrastructure Master Plan.
women; in turn, almost 50% of those who took exercise did Based on an experience carried out in the summers of 
so in communal spaces or public locations. 2003 and 2004, involving the installation of two modules 
We are all aware of the importance of physical activity, in the city’s coastal boulevard, in which a multidisciplinary 
sport and recreation in their own right. In the sphere of group worked intensely on the democratization of access 
community work, experience has shown us that, as well as to the different benefits offered by physical activity and 
these intrinsic values, we are also dealing with conceptually sport, linking them necessarily to a project for a more 
complementary elements and innovative challenges leading participative and caring society.
to the autonomy of citizens with regard to their decision- At this stage we defined two types of undertakings:
making capacity; defining their priorities and those of the • Working with the population already suffering some kind 
group; facing up to the issues affecting them, including the of health problem (obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes 
definition of certain problems and the way to overcome or asthma), 
them; promoting self-confidence, fostering creativity and • Starting a strategy to implement and promote physical 
generating a general feeling of wellbeing. activity in green areas, cycle paths or communal spaces. 
Based on the mission of the Department of Physical This initiative could not be ephemeral, so it had to include 
Education, Sport and Recreation which requires that we proposals with continuity over time and that, at the same 
create a Municipal Policy in these areas of responsibility, we time, could be reinvented and improved by the multiple 
have also drawn up three general objectives that underpin agents involved.
all our actions: As public policy administrators, we then set sufficient 
a)  To favour the drawing up of comprehensive elements of credibility so that the actions devised would 
development programmes. be part of a process of comprehensive development of the 
b) T o strengthen the de-centralization process. sports policy and the health of the target population.
c) T o promote the creation and development of a What this strategy for executing actions with the 
democratizing policy for the arrangement, use and community achieves is the benefit of the community, with 
management of communal social property. the resulting and necessary adaptability to local conditions 
as relevant in line with the initiatives at neighbourhood 
Regarding the programme, its objectives are: level.
• To build a network for actions based on the conceptual Finally, productivity and efficiency, so often mentioned, 
framework defined. are also incorporated in the public processes, as a way 
58 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
of showing responsibility when it comes to spending matter through the strategy of the Sporting Infrastructure 
and investing public funds. We also try to influence the Master Plan. 
destination given to the corporate social responsibility • We increased the number of polyclinics covered from 2 to 
budgets of private sector companies so that they are 8.
consist with the municipal policy. • The installation of the aerobic circuits and gymnastic or 
free sport facilities in the city’s parks was authorized.
Phase 1 • We participated actively in the design of urban 
• A study of the habits of the population was carried out intervention strategies with the Urban Maintenance 
jointly with the National Directorate for Sport and the Section and the Comprehensive Plan on Irregular 
National Statistical Institute. Settlements (PIAI).
• Working committees were established in co-ordination • New cycle paths were installed in the city. 
with the Pan-American Health Organization (PHO) with 
the participation of numerous public and private agents, Phase 4 
from Ministries to private companies. • In 2008 the Sporting Infrastructure Master Plan was 
• Based on these conversations, the path to be followed was launched and the Parks project was reinforced during the 
defined. summer season.
• This is the year when the investments are budgeted and 
Phase 2 marketed through sponsors.
• We redirected the investment towards other parts of the •  Intensive work is carried out in the framework of the 
city. Participative Budget with the community.
• We extended the social projection of the pedagogical • At the end of 2009 we are processing the data of a new 
proposal and obtained more funds through sponsors. survey of habits to compare the results with the data 
•  The type of facilities necessary was defined for the obtained in 2005. 
installation of aerobic circuits, health tracks or fixed 
exercise stations in parks. Context of application of this project
• The pertinent actions were co-ordinated to start up Montevideo has a population of 1.3 million people, as 
physical activities where there were ODH (obese, diabetic the capital of the country, while the entire population of 
and hypertensive) groups. Uruguay is 3.3 million inhabitants.
• An asthma and physical activity action group was installed A worsened socio-economic situation, as a result of the 
in an arrangement with the Hospital Pereira Rossell which neo-liberal economic policies applied in the last 20 years 
provides care for children. have left a vast belt of poverty on the outskirts of the city, 
• We started commercial negotiations for business where a number of irregular settlements have grown up, 
sponsorship (aerobic circuits, for example). leaving almost a third of the population under the poverty 
• Training courses were imparted to professionals in the threshold after the crisis of 2002.
public and private sectors. Based on this analysis, our services were aimed at 
de-concentrating actions, moving gradually away form the 
Phase 3 coast (the area with a better economic level and better 
• We raised awareness within the Municipality about this services), striving to encompass the green areas of the city 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 59
and, at the same time, giving priority to the intervention in • The Andalucía park, with sports facilities, on the bank of 
the suburban polyclinics. the Miguelete river where formerly there was an irregular 
settlement.
Assessment • Three new cycle paths in the city.
With only six months to go before the end of the project, • A focus group to deal with asthma in co-ordination with 
our assessment is as given below: the Children’s Hospital.
The following have been installed: • A physical activity and sport comprehensive working 
• A new aerobic circuit at Rodó park. group in the parks during the summer.
•  A new physical exercise station at Batlle park. • The Líber Seregni park, with sports facilities, health track 
• A new aerobic circuit at Prado park, where a fixed physical and skateboard area. 
activity station will shortly be installed. • In the context of the Participative Budget, the residents 
• 15 new basketball rings and backboards in parks and approved the decision that 42% of the projects be 
squares, in co-ordination with the Presidency of the for investments aimed at improving communal sports 
Republic. facilities.
• Teaching service within 8 Municipal Polyclinics with • In the context of creating the Sporting Infrastructure 
private funding. Master Plan, the concession of public spaces to sporting 
• Skateboard area in the Peñarol neighbourhood, a historic institutions was formalized, promoting the responsible 
area being restored. use of the environment, careful use of energy and optimal 
T he following have been created: use of the facilities granted.
• The Punta Yeguas public park (113 ha) in the west of the • An indoor sports complex is being built at the north 
city where adventure sports, canoeing, triathlon and of the city (Gruta de Lourdes), in the context of the 
duathlon are promoted. Comprehensive Plan on Irregular Settlements. 
60 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
EXPERIENCE
Sport Inspires Me
Pedro Peres
Coordinator of the Program, Sport Department of the City of Lisbon (Portugal)
According to a social diagnosis an intervention is being put into practice 
in the city of Lisbon by the Department of Sport of the Municipality with 
the objective of promoting social inclusion through sport for children and 
the young at risk living in disadvantaged and problematic neighbourhoods 
strategically based on the development of a dynamic partnership with 
local public and non-governmental organizations.
Sport inspires multiple opportunities Exclusion takes then the shape of a multidimensional 
We live in a time of great technological progress and social phenomenon, leading to the fact that the non-
scientific discoveries which prolongs life and increases participation of individuals means that they are obtaining 
performance. Nevertheless, this modern society has only a minimum of the benefits that they are entitled to, 
also contributed to accentuating social inequalities, and as full members of society, as opposed to the concept of 
injustice is more and more a question of survival for the social integration (Capucha, 1998). 
more vulnerable groups. In the scope of this approach, and because of its unique 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 61
character, sport must play a fundamental role, as a vehicle 558,965 inhabitants (in 2001), Lisbon is the largest and 
of reference and a benchmark for positive values. Its the most densely populated city in Portugal (6,672.20 
added value, commonly recognized, is legitimated for inhab./Km2 in 2001). The resident population is 5.29% of 
example in the “White Paper on Sport”, where, in addition the Portuguese population. 
to the strong contribution that sports activities offer, In the nineties, with the aim of clearing the slums, a 
it also suggests that the EU member countries develop Special Re-housing Program was created in the Lisbon 
initiatives with the aim of promoting social inclusion and Oporto urban areas to provide the possibility for 
through Sport. families (mainly foreigners and ethnic minorities from 
Consequently, physical activity in general must represent Portuguese speaking countries) living in slums to own 
a strong means for putting an end to prejudice and their own homes at a very low cost. 
discrimination. Sport, in which diversity is an asset to be Nevertheless, a large number of these action programs 
preserved and explored from a pedagogical perspective, did not survive the economic interests deeply related to 
could be a conduit for many opportunities and the real estate speculation. This procedure led to a movement 
freedom of expression, in order to put an end to the of people from their original locations to the urban 
primacy of one culture over another (Arends, 1995). suburbs where land was cheaper.
This attitude means developing a process of equality Moreover, social facilities, namely educational, sport 
and inclusion where people of different backgrounds, or leisure facilities, were not built. This gave rise 
independently of their social status, sex, different to discrimination and greater social exclusion. Too 
capacities or any other quality, can feel comfortable about many problems were concentrated in areas already 
expressing their opinions and perspectives, and where suffering from the stigma of the “bairro social”, i.e., a 
they are able to do sport activities belonging to their neighbo urhood for the underprivileged population, where 
own culture and other cultures (Houlihan, 2000; Kirk and the residents felt oppressed by poverty. 
Gorely, 2001). Nowadays, most of these neighbourhoods have all the 
According to this perspective, the Department of Sport characteristics of urban ghettos: an environment of 
of the Municipality of Lisbon developed a project named violence, criminality, prostitution, traffic, addiction and 
“Sport Inspires Me” – a local intervention that is being juvenile delinquency. The feeling of social exclusion is 
put into practice with the objective of promoting social reflected in violent and vandalic acts, clearly revealing a 
inclusion through sport for children and the young at risk complete lack of a sense of belonging.
living in suburban slums. 
Sport as a vehicle for learning 
The social context of underprivileged According to a social diagnosis, one of the most 
neighbourhoods underprivileged and problematic neighbourhoods was 
With a surface area of 84.8 Km2 and a population of chosen for strategic pilot actions of the project “Sport 
62 MONOGRAPH CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION  2010
Inspires Me”. An intervention methodology was defined, Sports activities shaped the course of these actions. 
based on the development of a dynamic partnership The joint intervention invested heavily in the recreational-
with local public and non-governmental organizations. pedagogical aspect.
Each partner agreed to select an expert to form part of The interventions were divided along three main lines:
a multi-disciplinary team. These technical experts have a • Regular sport activities: in order to promote the 
great deal of experience in the field and knowledge of the participation of children and young people, already 
community, specifically, children, youth and their families, organized in groups by the participating entities, general 
and also of the existing social dynamics, which means that physical education and dance activities were carried out, 
while they have the capacity for social intervention, they such as indoor soccer, skating, swimming, kickboxing, 
have no means to organise sports activities due to the rugby, table tennis, hip-hop; 
lack of facilities and technical staff. • Education/Non-formal Education activities: to build new 
Finally, there were twenty-one technical experts involved positive references and to take advantage of the experts’ 
in different activities: psychologists, teachers, monitors, influence on the neighbourhood. Certain activities for the 
and pre-school educators, among others, which lead to a training of local residents took place in order to include 
multifaceted intervention, based on different knowledge them in the development of regular sports activities 
areas. for the community. Activities to increase parents’ 
For a start, it was decided that the municipal sport participation in their children’s education were also 
facilities would be made available for group activities so carried out. 
that a symbolic sport activity could be organised with all • Citizenship activities: without a pre-established schedule 
of the children and young people. certain activities were carried out with the specific aim 
This was very important because of the new dynamic it of creating a feeling of identity and belonging. In this 
provoked. In a later phase, there was a need to improve sense, we organized group activities such as plastic arts 
other conditions in order to foster sports activities. It was workshops, reflection sessions to enable the participants 
also necessary to find other partners in the sports area to define the rules and, among others, several Sport 
as well as physical education teachers to provide regular Festivals were opened to the community to show the work 
classes and well as the organisation of other regular that had been carried out and in order to promote a fair-
sports activities for the youngest children. play environment. 
This alliance shared resources, maximizing the 
performance of each organization by working together, Sport removing barriers
always taking into account the added value generated In a time when there have been huge social changes 
by physical exercise and team work vis-à-vis social and there is a lack of positive references, in particular 
rehabilitation. for youth, the project “Sport Inspires Me”, aims to use 
2010  CITY, SPORT AND EDUCATION MONOGRAPH 63
the potential for positive ideals implicit in sports, its simple fact of including all social strata, cultures, ages and 
troubleshooting capacity (Rubin, Fein & Vandenberg, individuals both male and female, in the same activities, 
1983) and because, among other aspects, games work as in the same social environment, has diminished social 
cultural transmitters, where ideals and values are passed tensions, broken down barriers and eradicate dangerous 
from generation to generation, from adult to child and forms of behavior. 
from child to child (Sutton-Smith, 1979).
As a matter of fact, nowadays more than ever, we cannot 
ignore the added-value inherent in physical exercise 
for social rehabilitation. Consequently, and according Bibliography 
to the technical staff monitoring and doing periodical  
evaluations, it was possible, for example, to organize • ARENDS, R. (1995). Aprender a ensinar. Lisboa: McGraw-Hill
• CAPUCHA, M. A. (1998). Pobreza, Exclusão Social e Marginalidades. 
activities with rival groups sharing the same space at the Oeiras: Celta Editora;
same time, in order to create an identity and a feeling of • CAPUL, M. and LEMAY, M. (2003). Da Educação à Intervenção Social. 
belonging among the most underprivileged communities Porto: Porto Editora;
• CLAVEL, G. (2004). A Sociedade da Exclusão – Compreendê-la para 
by fostering the development of new personal and social dela sair. Porto: Porto Editora;
skills, supported by a fair-play environment. • COELHO, O. (2004). Pedagogia do Desporto. Lisboa: Livros 
Where so many other programs had failed, the problems Horizonte;
• EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2007). White Paper on Sport. Brussels;
of exclusion were confronted head on through an • HOULIHAN, B.M. (2001). Citizenship, civil society and the sport and 
experimental project organized in one of Lisbon’s most recreation profession, Managing Leisure, 1-14; 
violent neighborhoods. The highly positive results led to • HOULIHAN, B.M. (2000). Sporting excellence, schools and sports 
development: The politics of crowded policy spaces”, European 
the application of the same methodology in several other Physical Education Review, 62, 171-194;
city neighbourhoods, with the concomitant adaptations • RUBIN K., FEIN G., and VANDENBERG, B. (1983). Play. In P.H. Mussen 
based on their specific social contexts. (ed.) Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 4. New York: John Wiley and 
Sons;
The project “Sports Inspires Me” tries to comply with • SUTTON-SMITH, B. (1979). Play and Learning. New York: Gardner 
the constitutional right of all citizens to do sports and the Press.
International Association of © Photographs: Layout and printing by:
Educating Cities Cover: Image and Editorial 
(IAEC) City of San Sebastian Productions,
C/Avinyó 15, 4th floor City of Barcelona
08002 Barcelona (Spain) Interview with Sergio
Chiamparino: Date of publication: 
Coordination: City of Turin April 2010
Juli Pernas López, Director of 
la Fundació Barcelona Olímpica Interview with Steven N. Copyright deposit: 
Blair: B-18.019-2009
Technical Coordination: City of Guadalajara,
Mª Ángeles Cabeza Santano, General Direction of Education; ISSN:
IAEC Secretariat; City of Loures; 2013-4053
Javier Lasunción, Fundació City of San Sebastian;
Barcelona Olímpica Institut Barcelona Esports
Translations: Interview with Christina
Tau traduccions Ramberg:
City of Gothenburg
Style revision and 
corrections: Interview with Johann Olav 
IAEC Secretariat Koss:
Michael Tregebov Right To Play
 
© Published by: Article by Paul De Knop and 
IAEC Marc Theeboom:
Marc Theeboom
© Interviews and articles: 
The authors Article by Gertrud 
Pfister:
Adriana Machado;
City of Strasbourg;
Fotoquelle: LaufReport.de;
Right To Play
Article by Enrique Rovira-
Beleta:
Institut Barcelona Esports; 
Rovira-Beleta Accesibilidad SLP;
Special Olympics Catalunya
Experiences:
City of Granollers;
City of Lisbon;
City of Lokossa;
City of Mexico;
City of Montevideo;
City of Strasbourg;
Righ To Play.
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