Buíïo ISantiago de Compostelà •villalcxzai? Enviny DE Sirga Ç Burgos Nogales Naval de *v.| Ampurias Palència Breda Valladolid Zamora Montserrat Arenys de Mar Fraga Portillo Oporto .San Cugat Barcelona Cuéllar muel Veli lla de Ebro Daroca Híjah Tarragona Salamanca Alcalá Recuenca ív * de"'; /El Escorial henar I * Teruel J Madrid* *_Cadalso de los Viorii Cuenca Alcora Coria Talavera de la Reina * Lagartera OCAÑA El Puente del Arzobispo Paterna Lluchmayor Alarcón ★ * Felanitx Manises* vValencia Lisboa Bonete Almagro Alcaraz Villafranca de los Barros SANTOS córdoba Castril * de la \ * . Peña.** maría Itálica ^ Carmona Baena Huelva iCartagena Sevilla Osuna Granada Morón de l/g^Rontera SPAIN AND PORTUGAL ♦ jerez de la Frontera ***** [almerím Puerto de ; Málaga Santa María'; provenance of the society's objects mentioned in the text HISPANIC NOTES & MONOGRAPHS ESSAYS, STUDIES. AND BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES ISSUED BY THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA CATALOGUE SERIES MUSEUM COURT THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA HANDBOOK MUSEUM AND LIBRARY COLLECTIONS ricri, - PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES NEW YORK COPYRIGHT. 1938. BY THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA FOREWORD IN 1904 The Hispanic Society of America was founded. Its chief object, among others, was the presentation of the culture of the Hispanic peoples. At first comprising a single private collection, it has grown greatly. In order that scholars, students, and the public in general might have immediate access to the greater part of the material, the latter was given to the Society with the condition that all inedited subjects be published only by the members or the staff of the institution. The splendid work of this group is shown in the more than six hundred imprints produced by members and curators since the foundation. The present volume is, in brief, a summary of the collections and, in some measure, of the said publications. This issue and those which precede it have been made as comprehensive as possible. The reader should bear in mind that this handbook is intended for the use of the general public. The specialist will find further detail elsewhere and is also referred to the more technical publi- cations of the Society. Scholars and specialists are invited to aid by their en- lightening comment for the improvement of future reprints and additions. While the collecting, organization, and direction of the undertakings of the Society have been the work of a lifetime, the indebtedness to hundreds of friends and fellow workers, both within and without the institution, who have contributed to its development is here gratefully expressed. Archer M. Huntington BE^ ^^tiSS:3t'■ ir: liíiíí i l-íí- A 4 ■ . 'j--: . :■• 5 ' iíá5^^^^t;. 'Ív ^¿^^^-·-■ ■ ':r ^ " í^V" , ■ ta .^-4" '' ht?4 m ' V - -s^ ¿T. '\ih ®pïKS^^ . ^.4: . .:s."»"'*s^í CONTENTS page Foreword........... v I Paintings ......... 3 II Sculpture ......... 57 III Ceramics ......... 103 > IV Glass 151 V Gold and Silverwork ....... 171 VI Ironwork ......... 213 VII Furniture ......... 243 VIII Textiles .......... 273 IX Laces and Embroideries . . . . . . . 299 X Manuscript Maps . . . . . . . .315 XI Prints ......... 323 XII Manuscripts and Books ....... 353 Index .......... 411 CONTRIBUTORS The title-page, the decorative half titles and tailpieces, adapted from designs on objects in the collections, are the work of Miss Frances Spalding, under whose direction the illustra- tions were prepared by the photographic staff of the Society. Elizabeth du Gué Trapier Paintings Beatrice Oilman Proske Sculpture Alice Wilson Frothingham Ceramics and Glass Ada Marshall Johnson Gold and Silverwork Anne Sawyer Durand Ironwork Grace Hardendorff Burr Furniture Florence Lewis May Textiles, Laces and Embroideries Anna Pursche Manuscript Maps Eleanor E. Sherman Prints Clara Louisa Penney Manuscripts and Books Spanish primitive painters have but recently become the object of docu- mentary research. Names are at last emerging from obscurity, panels long forgotten are being replaced in their rightful retablos, and cifter centuries of neglect they are again the subject of interested speculation. Separate panels and retablos in the collection of The Hispanic Society of America are the work of the artists of the kingdoms of Aragón and Castilla-León during the four- I teenth and fifteenth centuries. From every port in the Kingdom of Aragón, which included Valencia and Cataluña, merchant vessels sailed to the far possessions of the King, Peter the Fourth, who ruled over Sicily, Sardinia, and many distant places. Return- ing to the mainland these ships brought new ideas as well as merchandise. Art influences from Italy penetrated the entire kingdom in the fourteenth century, and the King's favourite painters were followers of the Sienese. The earliest panels in the collection of the Society seem to belong to the region of the kingdom where Siena influenced the native painters, and such men as Jaume and Pere Serra were leaders of an impor- tant school. Contracts prove the high esteem in which the Serras were held by royalty, and a few paintings remain to testify to their skill: the beauti- ful panels by Jaume for the Monastery of the Santo Sepulcro at Zaragoza and the large retablo of the Pentecost by Pere which is still at Manresa. Throughout the Kingdom of Aragón there were provincial painters, working in the small towns and mountain villages, who, although extremely isolated, contributed retablos which were echoes of the more accomplished work being done in the important centres of Zaragoza, Barcelona, and Valencia. Far removed from the life of the court, limited as to money, and strictly controlled by contracts with PANEL FROM their patrons, they yet produced works of definite A CATALAN RETABLO character and individuality. Daniel; Saint Gertrude of Nivelles; strong The Crucifixion: Saint Agatha Such an artist was the man who painted the six long, narrow panels, the upper part of a retablo dedicated to Saint Michael and Saint Peter (A3), which are now in the collection of the Hispanic Society. The artist was evidently acquainted with the work of the Serras, for he followed them in many iconographical details. His colours are in a lower key, for he used dark reds, browns, grays, and dusky blues with but a sparse amount of 3 HISPANIC SOCIETY gold. A coat of arms indicates that they belonged to the powerful Order of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem. Because of other retablos found at Chiva de Morella and Albocácer and across the border at San Juan del Barranco which resemble these panels, it seems probable that the artist came from the region of Valencia known as the Maestrazgo. Here the orders of Montesa and Saint John of Jerusalem were all-powerful. To the same school, if not to the same retablo, as that of the Hispanic Society's primitives belong the panels in the Eymonaud Collection, Paris, which include a prophet in the pinnacle. Quo Vadis?, two panels on the life of Saint Peter, and two on that of Saint Michael. Equally important because they formed the central portion of a large retablo of very similar type are the eight panels belonging to Bacri Frères, Paris, on the lives of the same saints, a Last Judg- ment, and a Saint Nicholas(?) scene. Although the Forner family working at the ancient capital of San Mateo contracted for several retablos, none of them corresponds to the panels in the Society's collection, nor can these panels be definitely identified as the work of the Tortosan painter, Domingo Vails. In the southern portion of the Kingdom of Ara- gón, Italian influences fell upon fertile soil, for Valen- cian art was of a milder and more adaptable charac- ter than that of Cataluña. The fourteenth-century retablos often contained tall, languid saints. Virgins smiling amid flower gardens, landscapes enlivened by birds and animals, and even scenes of martyr- dom which have an idyllic rather than a brutal qual- ity. An early example of the Italianate style is the small panel of The Nativity (A 10), thought to belong to a retablo of Saint Luke ordered by the Guild of the Carpenters, Valencia. With the retablo of the Holy Cross (Valencia) and that of Saint George (London) Flemish influences vied with Italian, and the new century was her- aided. Battle scenes, knights in single combat, and ferocious martyrdoms became increasingly popular. Saint George mounted his white horse to slay the dragon, and the Spanish warriors rode forth again to fight the Moors. These conflicting influences, Flemish and Italian, might be studied in the work of Pedro Nicolau if any extant retablo could be attributed to him with absolute certainty. Contracts prove that he worked for the Cathedral at Valencia, for Teruel and Sarrión, towards the end of the fourteenth century and well into the next. His early works must have been influenced by Italy, but later he collaborated with a German artist. Marzal de Sas. Since it is mentioned 4 PAINTINGS tie in a contract that his retablo for Penàguila was to be as good or better than va. the one completed for the Hospital of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem CO at Valencia, there is a possibility that a retablo from the church of these knights is by the hand of Nicolau. Panels from this retablo are divided between The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Hispanic So- ciety. The former museum owns the side panels of Saint Giles, Christ Triumphant over Satan, and The Mission of the Apostles. The latter has the following panels (A2031): the large central panel of The Aseen- sion, the side panel of Saint Vincent, and from the predella, Noli me tangere, and The Entombment. Nicolau may well have been the author of this work, for it combines Italian and Flemish qualities, then prevalent in Valencian art, with native character- istics that are very marked. There is delicate charm in the small panels, enchanting melancholy in the blond Saint Vincent and the stern Saint Giles. Only a master craftsman could have drawn The Aseen- sion and used colours so rich and varied that it has scarcely an equal throughout the period. The fifteenth century brought many changes to the Kingdom of Aragón, and Italian art influences were finally discarded for those of the Netherlands. Whether or not Jan Van Eyck's visit influenced " Spain, it remains certain that many Flemish prim- Â2031 PANEL FROM itives were imported and that Alfonso the Fifth of A VALENCIAN RETABLO Aragón sent his painter, Luis Dalmau, The Ascension to Flanders. Upon his return Dalmau painted for Barcelona the Virgin of the Councilors with its memories of Van Eyck's Adoration of the Lamb. Another of the King's fa- )ity vourites, the Valencian Jacomart, was a follower of the Netherlandish artists the although he had spent much time in Italy on royal commissions. It was during the second half of the fifteenth century that Cataluña pro- rge duced a school of artists famous for the magnificence of their monumental ler- retablos, loaded with gilded stucco ornamentation. The changing influences me apparent in this school, which centred for the most part around Barcelona, on, ïï^ay be traced in the excellent work of Jaume Huguet. His retablo for Tarrasa with its graceful, pensive saints, delicate landscapes, and faint flavour of Italy, the followed a few years later by the work which he did for the Constable of 'ith Portugal and towards the end of the century by the Saint Augustine panels, at both of which follow Flemish iconography without losing their strong native md characteristics. but Quite as Catalan as Huguet is the artist of The Virgin and Child Enthroned aed (A2139), evidently the central panel of an important retablo. Seated upon a gold 5 HISPANIC SOCIETY throne the Virgin holds the Child upon her lap while small figures of angels and apostles stand in adoration upon the throne. Her heavy halo is silhouetted against a red and gold cloth of honour, her dark garments are bordered with raised gold. Other influences than those of the Catalan-Flemish school are evident in this panel which comes from a church at Ravenna. Only the contempo- rary Venetians could rival the Catalans in their use of gilded stucco ornamentation, and it was Crivelli and the Vivarini who often placed the Child, standing and lightly clad, upon a fold of the Virgin's mantle as does the artist of this panel. The Venetians also adorned their thrones, elaborate as this one, with little music-making angels. Possibly some Catalan artist painted this work at Ravenna or Venice, unforgetful of his native land yet responsive to the sumptuous art which surrounded him. A2139 PANEL FROM Contemporary with Huguet was the dis- A CATALAN RETABLO tinguished family of the Vergós whose only ex- The Virgin and Child Enthroned tant documented work is the retablo of Saint Stephen from Granollers. Jaume and Rafel Vergós completed it in 1500, Pau having died after the contract was signed. It is impossible to be certain what share Jaume, the father, and Pau and Rafel, the sons, had in the painting of this large retablo which contained a wealth of incident and an enormous amount of gilded ornamentation. The panels which are now at Barcelona consist of a Crucifixion, six scenes on the life of Saint Stephen, part of a predella, and four prophets from the guardapolvos. No less magnificent than the Granollers prophets are six panels (A 1860) representing Abraham, David, Isaiah, Moses, Jeremiah, and Melchizedek. Stern figures of the Old Testament, they are portrayed with barbaric splen- dour and all the gold ornamentation that the narrow panels can hold. The first four vary but little from the Vergós prophets—a hand placed at a different angle, a change in the drapery of a fold—but Jeremiah and Melchizedeh, have no counterparts at Barcelona and seem to have been the sanctuary doors that led behind the altar. These prophets are certainly from the atelier of Vergós, for repetitions of important retablos like that of Saint Stephen are often in demand in contracts. In the far corners of the Kingdom of Aragón and on the slopes of the Pyre- nees, artists were copying the works of Huguet and the Vergós or else inter- preting in their own manner Flemish art which had by this time become the admiration of Spain. At Enviny, a small village in the province of Lérida, the leading men had ordered a retablo for their church from Pere Espalargucs in 1490. The main portion of the retablo (A5), which is very typical of provincial 6 PAINTINGS taste, is in the collection of the Society. It includes seven scenes from the New Testament and the guardapolvos with the coat of arms of the Counts of Foix and inscriptions in regard to ordering the work. Part of the predella and the sanctuary doors are in The John G. Johnson Art Col- lection, Philadelphia. The artist's poverty of imagination forced him to rely upon Flem- ish sources for inspiration, and although he delighted in every shade of red at his com- mand, he was restricted in the use of gold. Aragonese art, which had been less sub- ject than Catalan to foreign domination in the fourteenth century, retained its distinc- tive traits in the fifteenth in spite of the Flemish invasion. The favourite regional ESPALARGUCS models were severe saints standing before A section of the relahlo thrones, cloths of honour, or parapets, often with landscape backgrounds indicated by dark, conical trees. Equally popular was a type Virgin and Child enthroned and surrounded by music-playing angels, in the portrayal of which the Aragonese became more and more extravagant. The provincial school may be studied in the panels attributed to Jaume Lana from the Colegiata de Sania Maria, Borja, for in them the very distinctive gold ornamentation is used to excess, the flesh tones are dark, and the predomi- nant colour is red. Somewhat earlier in date than these panels but equally rich in native flavour is the retablo of The Visitation (A17). A fer- tile imagination has depicted the saintly legend contained in five of the six panels, and but little trace of Flemish feeling is appar- ent. Cold is used with discretion, the flesh tones are dark, and the green brocaded tex- tile which serves as a background for three of the scenes is similar to that used in panels at Huesca of about the same date. The retablo as a whole is unusually harmonious as the artist has limited his palette almost entirely to dark green, garnet red, and brown. Towards ARAGONESE RETABLO the end of the century two names OF THE VISITATION are prominent, those of Martin Bernat and Miguel Ximénez, who, according to certain contracts, often worked together. If the panels from the Blesa retablo with the story of the Holy Cross may be taken as examples of their workmanship, the artists have little to recom- mend them save a rugged vigour and a love of bright colours. To Bernat alone was once attributed the retablo of Saint Martin, Saint Silvester, and Saint 7 HISPANIC SOCIETY Susan at Daroca, two of the panels of which are interesting in connection with two other panels; Saint Martin Ordained Bishop and The Mass of Saint Martin (A9). Both are depicted with fine pageantry and much gold ornamentation, but those in the collection, because of their size, must have been placed at the side of a central panel rather than in a predella. The century finished for Aragón in a blaze of gold with such enormous produc- tions as the Saint Justa and Saint Rufina retablo at Maluenda, which parallels the final expression of the Catalan school before the arrival of the Renaissance. The Kingdom of Castilla and León was successively ruled in the fifteenth century by John the Second and Henry the Fourth, not being united to that of Aragón until the A9 PANEL FROM Catholic Kings began their reign. The AN ARAGONESE RETABLO presence of Italian artists until a late date The Mass of Saint Martin was probably the reason that the Flemish invasion did not reach Castilla earlier, but when it came, all was swept before it. Rare treasures of Netherlandish art were accès- sible to Castilian painters, for John the Second had presented to the Cartuja de Miraflores a triptych of the Virgin by Van der Weyden, and Isabel the Catholic had assembled at Granada a rich collection of Flemish primitives. The brilliant court of the Catholic Kings was thronged with artists, many of them with Flemish names. Native art had difficulty in surviving, and the weaker men, such as Fernando Gallego, were so enslaved that their works became but dull re- flections of the genius of others. A few were strong enough to retain their own individuality and to increase their knowledge. Foremost among these was Pedro Gonzalez Berruguete whose extant works proclaim him the leader of the native school. A provincial artist of the Castilian-Flemish Ai but excellent the PANEL FROM A CASTILIAN school, certainly an one, was RETABLO OF author of numerous panels from a retablo of the THE VIRGIN AND CHILD Virgin and Child (Al). The central panel was Virgin and Child with Saint Catherine and Saint Barbara originally surmounted by The Crucifixion and had four side scenes from the New Testament. Below were probably the small 8 PAINTINGS representations of the Annunciation, the Presentation, and the Resurrection. The painter ignored half tones and depended for much of his effect upon harsh colour contrasts— smaller panels, but the large central scene of the Virgin holding the Child is very individual. Here the background is gold with an incised pattern of Virgin has pride and placid dignity surrounded by ^ provincial artist but dating from the end of the century is the retablo of the Apotheosis of /Ae Virgin (A 13). The Annunciation and the Adora- tion of the Magi flank the central Apotheosis while six other panels contain standing flgures of saints placed against cloths of honour as in the Flemish pr,.x,r-, .T-T.r. primitives. Twelve aneil from the apoS" . , in castilian RETABLO of the hll the predella. apotheosis of the virgin Earthy colours, reds. The Annunciation and browns pre- dominate; gold is used for the halos and ornamen- tation. Landscape backgrounds with towers, castles, and woods are rather awkwardly attempted. Post sees in this retablo a resemblance to that of the re- tablo of Saint Laurence in the Church of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros, Agreda, which results in its classification as Castilian rather than Leonese. In the southern portion of the Kingdom of Gas- tilla and León, where Sevilla and Córdoba were art centres of great importance, an Andalusian-Flemish school had taken the place of the Italianized art- ists of the fourteenth century. At Sevilla a group of men with the name of Sánchez painted in an ex- aggeratedly Flemish style, and it was not until the appearance of Alejo Fernández with his beautiful panels that the first breath of the Renaissance reached Andalucía. The school of Córdoba is best represented by two . Jí: men of marked talent: Master Alfonso, to whom has bermejo been given the vigorous Martyrdom of Saint Medí, Michael and Bartolomé Bermejo. Two panels (A 16), Saint (Attributed) Michael and Saint Jerome, have been attributed to the famous Bermejo. These 9 HISPANIC SOCIETY tall saints placed within architectural frames were probably the side panels of a large central scene as were the two Saint Johns in the Virgin and Child with Saints and Donors by Memling. Both Saint Michael and Saint Jerome have the distinctive bearing, the pensive melancholy of all Bermejo's saints. No trace of provincialism is visible, and the panels are painted in a rich but subdued tonality which includes yellow, brown, and red. A turquoise sky and faintly indicated landscapes appear behind gold cloths of honour. An elaborately traced shield and other ornamentation proclaim the approach of the Renaissance. The same thoughtful air, the downcast eyelids, the high foreheads, may be seen in two of Bermejo's finest works: the Saint Engracia at Boston and the Saint Michael in London. Bermejo, active during the latter part of the cen- tury, painted the magnificent Saint Dominic for Daroca and the heart-rending Pieta for Barcelona. His paintings are imbued with deep religious feeling and dark melancholy, and in such works as the Virgin with the Saw at Acqui and the Holy Face at Vich he equals the painters of the Netherlands who were his inspiration. The Renaissance so long retarded in Spain was now near at hand, and the pendulum swung away from Flanders and back towards Italy. This transition phase is represented by seventeen panels of a retablo (A4) which came orig- inally from Zamora in the region of León. A provincial follower of the Umbrian school is responsible for the greens, browns, and yellows, the dark reds and white which form a harmonious tonality. The artist is not a master creiftsman, however, and his shortcomings are easily discernible. The predella remains in the Gothic period with its gold backgrounds with incised patterns, but the other panels have emerged into the light of the Renaissance with delicate land- scapes, interesting architectural details, and smiling figures whose soft curls fall over slop- ing shoulders. It was the enchanting art of Leonardo da Vinci which awakened the imagination of many of the early followers of the Renais- sanee in Spain. Especially significant is the fact that these men came from such remote PANEL FROM places as Extremadura and La Mancha. Some A LEONESE RETABLO of them must have been influenced through Saint John the Evangelist on direct contact with Italy. When Yáñez de la the Island of Patmos Almedina and Hernando de Llanos arrived at Valencia, they came fully equipped to paint the wooden shutters for the reredos of the Cathedral. So excellent was their work, so brilliant their colour, and so reminiscent of Leonardo their mannerisms, that long years of training 10 PAINTINGS probably in Italy must have been the preparation for their difficult task. The Extremaduran, Luis de Morales, born about 1517, presents much the same problem as do the two other artists. Although even less is known of his life, and documents do not reveal a journey to Italy, he painted in a man- ner markedly Italian with but a faint trace of the H Netherlands in his tragic Pietas and Ecce Homo's. His colour scheme is far more Leonardesque than is that of the painters of the wooden shutters at Valencia Cathedral, and his exquisite Virgins bend over the sleeping Child in a manner worthy of the great Milanese who inspired him. To appreciate how close was the tie which bound Morales to Italy the Virgin with the Dis- iqff (A80) must be compared with a work on the same subject attributed to Leonardo which was in MORALES the collection of the late Duke of Buccleuch. In Virgin with the Distaff these paffitings the gesture of the Virgin is the same, as she raises one hand in a hesitant manner and supports the Child with the other. The resemblance between the two children is even more striking, and their positions are very similar as they gaze intently upon the cross formed by the distaff. The Holy Family (A78) by Morales is perhaps the finest example of his art which the Society possesses, for here the artist is concerned with an original conception which he has depicted with all the skill at his command. The Virgin clad in red tunic and blue mantle leans above the small fig- ure of the Child who sleeps with convincing naturalness. Behind her are Saint Joseph and a maid whose exquisite oval face is framed in a white wimple. In the background dark clouds lift to reveal a strange landscape of blue-green hills, a tower like the Torre del Oro, Sevilla, and shepherds watching their flocks. In the upper right-hand corner is a diagram of the horoscope Collection, Madrid, can compare with this ex- ample, although many of Morales' other repre- Br sentations of the Virgin and Child have the same '78 ■■^MÊÊÊÊÊ^F.. JH mysterious charm. Morales' faults and many of his virtues may be attributed to the fact that he was also an illuminator of choir books. This skill in the miniaturist's art explains the delicacy and precision of his brush strokes, the finished perfection of his best works, and the clear-cut brilliance HISPANIC SOCIETY of his colours. It also makes plain the difficulties which he encountered when he attempted large compositions, and a certain rigidity noticeable in his full- length figures. A painting of the Ecce Homo (A79), one of his favourite themes, is a variant of a panel in the retablo at Arroyo del Puerco (Extremadura). A version at the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, is similar except that another figure has been added at the left. The contemporaries of Morales did their share in interpreting the Italian masters to Spain, although they were often not more successful than was Juan de Juanes who filled the churches of Valencia with paintings. At Sevilla the works of Luis de Vargas and of several Italianized Flemings, who painted in the manner of the Roman school, were greatly admired. Nevertheless, when El Greco appeared at Toledo in 1577, a year after the death of Titian, Spain was quite unprepared to welcome him or to accept the full-blown beauty of the Renaissance which he had brought with him from Venice and the studio of Titian. Although the Spanish poets praised him, he failed to influence the artists of his generation. At the court of Philip the Sec- ond he met with cold disapproval when he painted the Saint Maurice for the King. Philip, a patron of Titian, did not understand the original genius of the Venetian's pupil. Upon his return to Toledo from his failure at court. El Greco seems to have withdrawn from the world, and from this moment his works increased in individuality. Here he completed his masterpiece. The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, with its superb portraits of the citizens of Toledo and its glimpse into another world, as the soul of the dead Count ascends through parting clouds to the mercy of heaven. The rich colour and the vivid beauty of the Venetian school were still fresh in his mind when he painted the Holy Family (A74) and the Pieta (A69). There are no replicas of this Holy Family, for the artist never again attempted to reproduce the vi- brant tonality, the spontaneous quality, the rhyth- mic line of this unique work. The rose colour of the Virgin's tunic, the blue green of her mantle, the yellow of Saint Joseph's cloak, and the gray of the turbulent clouds might have come but yesterday from the painter's brush. Here are no exaggerated mannerisms to distract the eye, no mysticism to A69 EL GRECO concern the soul, but perfect craftsmanship made Pieli magical by the touch of genius. The Pieta (A69), somewhat similar in colour, would also seem to date from the artist's early Toledan period when he had completed such beautiful works as the retablo for the Church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo. Into this small canvas of the Pieth is compressed an intense emotionalism, dramatic in the extreme. 12 PAINTINGS EL GRECO Holy Family 13 HISPANIC SOCIETY The miniaturist, Julio Clovio, was one of El Greco's models, and it was per- haps from him that he learned to paint the four circular pieces of copper with the portraits of Cardinal Farnese and others which are mentioned in the Orsini inventory and the two miniatures in the collection of the Society: oval por- traits of a man (A311) and a lady (A310), the former signed. No paintings show more clearly than do the single figures of Christ and the saints how thoroughly absorbed El Greco became with Spanish mysticism after long years spent at Toledo. His emaciated figures, as they gaze upon a crucifix with fanatical intensity or look upward towards the clouds which divide to reveal a shining light, are wrapped in an ecstasy which no worldliness may penetrate. Such a divine visionary is Saint James the Great (A72) represented in a small canvas, not as the warlike slayer of the Moors, but as a pilgrim in yel- low mantle and blue-green tunic. He is very like the figure at the extreme left in The Coro- nation of the Virgin, Church of San José, To- ledo. Near by on the gallery walls is another Saint James the Great (A71) standing upon a hilltop, a pilgrim's staff in his hand, a red mantle over his white tunic. Upon the stones at his feet appear the artist's initials. Of the Saint Dominic (A83), clad in the black and white robes of his Order, there are many variants. In a painting of Saint Jerome (A73), whom El Greco fre- quently clothed in the red robes of a cardinal, he is but partially draped in a fold of red cloth with his cardinal's hat hanging at the entrance EL GRECO to a dark cave. Near a skull and Saint Jerome hourglass appears a white paper with the artist's signa- ture. The head of Saint Francis of Assisi (A84) is an oval cut from a large canvas such as that of the Saint Francis in the Garcia Palència Collection, Madrid. In the Sacristy of Toledo Cathedral is El Greco's Christ Bestowing a Blessing and a series of apostles which includes a Saint Luke not unlike the signed painting in the collection. An Evangelist also known as The Holy Simeon (A1894). In the New York example the saint, who is clad in a green garment, holds a brown book which in the Toledo painting is opened to show a miniature of the Virgin and Child. In the pictures which El Greco completed towards the end of his life his mannerisms became more marked, and in the Laocoon and The Opening of the Fifth Seal the master of the early Venetian period is hardly recognizable. But it is these individual expressions, as well as his more balanced productions, which have inspired artists of later generations. After his death in 1614 there were left his son Jorge Manuel and a few 14 PAINTINGS pupils to carry on the work. The son was an architect of some renown and the maestro mayor of Toledo Cathedral. With the help of other artists he com- pleted a retablo for the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe for which his father had signed a contract before his death. As a painter he remains something of a mystery although much may be learned of his work from a copy which he made of El Greco's Expolio. Documents of 1609 and 1612 prove without a doubt that Jorge Manuel was the painter of the scenes on the life of Saint Mary Magdalene for the retablo in the church of Titulcia, the pictures of which have become scattered. They included Sup- per in the House of Simon. There now exist three variants of the subject. All three may be those listed in the 1621 inventory of Jorge Manuel's possessions, but the inventory fails to show whether Supper in the House of Simon they were painted by the (Attributed) father or the son. The Hispanic Society's painting (A75) seems to be the original from the church at Titulcia as it lacks that stamp of genius which El Greco managed to impart to the least of his works. Two more from Titulcia have appeared in the London art market, Noli me tangere and The Angel Appear- ing to Saint Mary Magdalene, both subjects grouped with the Supper in the House of Simon in the inventory. In these paintings the Christ and Mary Mag- dalene are the same types which appear in the example in the collection of the Society rather than in the other two versions by El Greco. These two works were placed above the Sup- per in the House of Simon which had as its com- panion piece another of the same size Jesus in the House of Martha and Mary (formerly in the col- lection of Lord d'Abernon, England). To one of El Greco's followers, either Fran- cisco Preboste or Luis Tristan, should be given The Virgin with the Crystal Dish (A70), for it is but a spiritless derivation from the beauti- ful Holy Family by El Greco which is now at Cleveland. While the composition conforms to that of the El Greco, the J. cMolo.urs are dull and lifeless The and the with the types ignoble. TThiHs EOTOCOPULVIirgin Crystal Dish painting in (Attributed) the collection of the Society is invaluable in measuring the distance which lies between the work of the master and that of his pupils. Philip the Second, the dissatisfied patron of El Greco, was ever generous Ayo PREBOSTE 15 HISPANIC SOCIETY to Titian, and in this he followed his father, the Emperor, whose taste for Ve- netian art he seems to have inherited. Although Charles the Fifth was never able to persuade Titian to come to Spain, he loaded him with honours and busied him with commissions. The result was that Titian was soon almost as well known in Spain as in Italy. Many are the splendid portraits which the Venetian painted of the Emperor and his son, but few the extant representa- tions of the Empress. She appears in the Glory of Charles the Fifth kneeling among the elect in heaven beside her husband and in the beautiful portrait in the Prado, where she is clad in rose-coloured velvet and satin. The Empress, Isabel of Portugal, had been dead several years when Charles ordered the latter portrait, and it was necessary for Titian to copy an older work to obtain a likeness. The history of the original used is still obscure, as the name of the artist is not mentioned in the letters exchanged on the subject. A portrait in the Roblot Collection, Paris, attributed erroneously to Sanchez Coello, is said to have been the original. A variant (A 1798) of this Paris pic- ture represents the Empress with red-brown hair and gray-blue eyes. The sobriety of her black dress is relieved by the red lining of the sleeves, the gold- coloured underskirt, and the jewels which outline the bodice. In another portrait of the Empress (A90) she is seen at full-length, dressed in the rich costume of the court, her hair golden brown and her eyes dark blue. The artist of this portrait is still unidentified, but it is doubtful if he was active during the lifetime of the Empress. In 1549 the young Prince Philip journeyed to the Netherlands to be intro- duced by the Emperor to his subjects as heir apparent. With him came the Duke of Alba, already a victorious soldier whose portrait Titian had but recently completed. It was now the turn of Antonio Moro of Utrecht, the painter of Cardinal Granvelle, to immortal- ize the stern features of the Duke who was later to rule the Netherlands with an iron hand. It was in this year, 1549, that Moro signed the portrait (A 105) in which Alba appears as an experienced campaigner with weather-beaten complexion, dark hair growing back from a high forehead, long nose, small dark eyes, and slight black mustache and beard. The only strong note of colour in the picture is the brilliant red scarf which crosses his damascened armour. Another version of this portrait exists at Brussels in the Musée Royal des Beaux Arts, but it is not en- Supposed Portrait of the Duke of Alba tirely by the hand of the master. The portrait in the Society is labeled "supposed portrait," as the suggestion has been made that it represents not Alba but Don Manrique de Lara, third duke of Nájera. Among the Spaniards present at the triumphal entry of the hereditary 16 PAINTINGS prince into Brussels at this time was Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, who later succeeded Alba in the Netherlands. A portrait supposed to represent Requesens (A1959) has been attributed to Moro. Here the subject is clad in armour crossed by a red scarf, his position much the same as that of the Duke of Alba except that he rests his hand upon a plumed helmet instead of grasping a baton of command. On the wall beside him is a portrait of a woman. If Moro is the author of this work, it seems probable that he painted it in 1549 when they were both at Brussels. In the next year the artist was at Rome, but later he went to Portugal and Spain where he completed many court portraits. At the Emperor's command he journeyed to England to undertake a portrait of Philip's betrothed, Mary Tudor. Moro also painted the sister of Philip the Second, Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Parma, in a picture which is now at Berlin, of which the Society possesses a variant (A88) attributed to Moro. Working with Moro in the house of the illustrious Cardinal Granvelle at Brussels was the young Valencian portrait painter, Alonso Sánchez Coello. Later his life paralleled that of Moro, for he also was held in high esteem at the courts of Portugal and Spain where he painted portraits of the royal families. Known as an ex- cellent copyist of Titian, he was chosen by Philip the Second to draw the sketch which Titian was to use in painting the allegory of the Battle of Lepanto. In 1571 he was made Painter to Philip the Second, and throughout his life- time until his death in 1588 he continued to paint portraits which were essentially Spanish and yet touched with a magic learned from the study of the greatest of the Venetians. One of Sánchez Goello's "eternos quadros," which Lope de Vega praised, may be the por- trait of Rudolph the Second, emperor of the À87 SANCHEZ COELLO Holy Roman Empire (A87). The Emperor ap- Rudolph the Second pears in half armour damascened in gold and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire trunks of gray material with rose-coloured panes. His helmet with curling red and gray plumes is placed upon a table. Although this was but one of many court portraits, Sánchez Coello has handled it with skill and finish, paying particular attention to the draping of the stiff orange and silver leather curtain and the reflection of the colours on the surface of the shining armour and the helmet. It was a pupil of Sánchez Coello, Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, who painted Philip the Second as the melancholy, black-clad figure of the Escorial, whose long reign came to a close at the end of the century. Named Painter to Philip the Third, Pantoja was faithful to the traditions established by Moro and Sánchez Coello and in his excellent portraits proved himself worthy of his 17 HISPANIC SOCIETY predecessors. He was especially successful in depicting the beautiful women of the court; among his portraits of them has been included a representation of a Spanish lady (A60) who wears a black dress brocaded in gold and silver and a large lace- edged ruff. Another artist of this school was Bartolomé González Lebraco (or Serrano) of Valladolid who in his turn became Court Painter to Philip the Third. Many times he placed on canvas the royal effigy and that of the queen, Margaret of Austria. His equestrian portraits of the sov- ereigns were retouched by Velazquez. A portrait of Philip the Third (A89) attrib- uted to Gonzalez portrays him in half armour and trunks of gold and silver cloth. He wears the badge of the Order of the Golden Fleece and holds a baton in his hand. Gonzalez's manner in this portrait which has suffered from re- painting is harsh and dry, for he seems to have forgotten all that the earlier portrait painters had learned from Titian. With his death in 1627 the school, which had had such a splendid beginning, came to an end. Philip the Fourth did not ascend the throne until the early years of the seventeenth century, but it was during his reign that Spanish painting reached its apogee and soon after his death that it began a decline. The King gave orders to no less a personage than Velazquez, whom he wearied with court duties, and Zurbaran, whom he made his Painter for decorating a sailing ship which was to amuse him on the pond of the Retiro. Distinct from these court favourites Murillo worked at Sevilla painting religious pictures, while at Naples Ribera depicted saints and pagans. José de Ribera of Valencia seems to have preferred the court of the Span- ish viceroy at Naples to that of the King at Madrid. Ribera was not unappreci- ated in Italy for he was made a member of the Academy of San Luca, Rome. He received the cross of the Papal Order of Christ. Many of his finest works were painted for the Church of San Martina at Naples, and his Martyrdom of Saint Januarius is still in the Cathedral there. The Baroque school was paramount in Italy during this period, and the fol- lowers of Caravaggio were painting figures in theatrical attitudes upon whom a sharp light played casting black shadows. The artists of this school desired to arrest attention, to cause emotional reactions, but unless they were masters of this art, as was Ribera, they failed to hold the interest which their dramatic representations had aroused. Ribera chose as they did to represent martyrdoms, ecstasies, and deaths, but he never made them sentimental or weak as did many of his contemporaries 18 PAINTINGS and pupils. His brushwork was always distinguished, his style virile and individual. When the legends and anecdotes which veil the personality of the real Ribera are replaced by documented facts and the many pictures falsely attributed to him are disentangled from his authentic works, then he will undoubtedly emerge as one of the most important men of his time, the foremost of the tenebrosi in Italy as well as Spain. The art of Ribera cannot be dismissed as "a transference of polychromatic statuary to can- vas" for if his figures have a sculpturesque qual- ity they owe this not to his knowledge of the wooden statues of Spain but to his observation of the antiquities which surrounded him eifter his arrival in Italy. His lost Triumph of Bacchus, fragments of which still remain, is said to be based upon a Roman relief in the Naples Museum. To the large company of Ribera's saints and apostles belongs the monumental Saint Paul (A77), a worthy representative of those many figures wrapped in voluminous mantles whose strong, dark faces peer forth from the blackness of the back- ground. The Communion of the Apostles and the vision of Saint Bruno, at Naples, prove that Ribera could paint large canvases in the Venetian manner full of light and space, cool with silvery grays and blues, or warm with brown, yellow, and rose colour. To Ribera, the colourist, belongs The Ecstasy of Saint Mary Magdalene {A76). The saint does not soar upwards through the clouds, as do El Greco's ascending Virgins, but remains poised and tranquil in the still air, her rose draperies in heavy folds and a golden cloud of cherubs about her. The Magdalene is as beautiful as the fair- haired gladiator whom Ribera painted in the Battle of Women or the radiant Venus who approaches Adonis striding on a solid cloud. Another Ecstasy of Saint Mary Magdalene in the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, is like this one in many details and yet very unlike both in colour and feeling. Ribera alone cannot be held responsible for introducing the style of the I tal- ian Baroque painters to Spain, for it seems to have arrived there at an early date. 19 HISPANIC SOCIETY Zurbarán, a provincial painter from Extremadura, was also influenced by the prevalent art tastes although he never journeyed to Italy. In his youth he was apprenticed to an image painter of Sevilla, and this may account for the rather wooden attitudes of some of his figures and the air of placid immobility which they possess. As a colourist he is often disappointing since he ignored the subtler harmonies of the palette and rarely experimented with the unusual. It is perhaps for this reason that his series of monks, many of them clad in white habits, have gained for him the greatest renown. These stern figures he portrays with a realism that is impressive in its intense sincerity. One of his earliest works, an Immaculate Conception, now at Sevilla, is dated 1616. Much of his time was spent in that city, where he was in demand by the churches and the Cathedral, while from 1638 to 1647 he was at work on cer- tain important canvases for the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. Although he was appointed Painter to Philip the Fourth, he does not seem to have spent many years at court. The artist did few portraits, but his studies of saints have a marvelous naturalness which suggests that they were painted from living models. The Apotheosis of Saint Thomas Aquinas is con- sidered his masterpiece, but four paintings on New Testament subjects in the Museum at Grenoble seem even finer and go far to prove that he was a worthy contemporary of Ribera. The extraordinary power and simplicity of Zurbarán's portrait of a Carthusian monk (A97) can only be equaled by the sombre figure of the praying Saint Francis in the ZURBARAN National Gallery, London. In both Carthusian Monk Reading paint- ings the artist is concerned with the prob- lems of chiaroscuro which interested the tenehrosi. That in his portrait of the Carthusian he more than equals his Italian contemporaries may be seen in the skillful modeling of the monk's face, half in shadow, half revealed, by the strong white light which comes from the left side of the picture and in the convincingly painted folds of the white woolen habit against the intense black- ness of the background. Less impressive, although it bears the signature of the artist and the date 1630, is the portrait of Miguel del Pozo (A96). Brother Miguel wears the white habit and the coat of arms of the Order of the Mercedarios Calzados, for he was a member of that Order whose object was to ransom Christian prisoners from the Moors. For the Hospital de la Sangre, Sevilla, Zurbarán painted a series of beauti- 20 PAINTINGS y ful women clad in rich gowns to whom he gave the names of various saints and e in whose delicate hands he placed the symbols of cruel martyrdoms. The series e has been scattered, and in many museums and collections, besides that at Sevilla, V are to be found these gentle saints. ™ d Of the three saints in the collection of the 1. Society, Rufina (A189I) is perhaps the most ex- ^• e quisite with her dark hair, her rose and ivory ,/i s flesh tints, her gray-green gown embroidered with gold and silver, and the long rose-coloured d mantle which falls from her shoulders to the í le ground. Saint Lucy (A94) stands next to her on the gallery walls clad in stiff gray taffeta and a \ y pink scarf. In one hand she holds a silver salver t •< h and in the other a large white cloth. A smaller M I le canvas depicts Saint Agatha (A98) in old gold it . it and rose taffeta, bearing the symbols of her mar- / I a Velazquez, who was about the age of Zur- 'jR it harán, began painting in the naturalistic man- le ner characteristic of his period, but he showed 1- an individual talent quite independent of his îs masters. Herrera the Elder and Pacheco. His zurearan m religious paintings, completed while he was still ;o young, have much of the solid worth of good genre, and his treatment was •y equally realistic and unimaginative whether he was painting Christ and the pilgrims at Emmaus or an old woman frying eggs. It is difficult to tell whether ;y his Christ in the House of Martha represents a religious subject or a bodegón of tk a kitchen maid with a framed biblical picture on the wall, re Upon his second visit to Madrid, Velazquez was taken immediately into the le favour of the youthful sovereign Philip the Fourth although he had done little t- as yet to recommend him to royal notice. The portraits which he painted of 0' the King at this time are the two in the Museo del Prado, one a full-length repre- le sentation and the other a bust portrait with the royal subject clad in armour le crossed by a red scarf. le The King's admiration for his young protege was shared by the favourite, le the powerful minister Olivares, and well pleased must Olivares have been by Ic- the superb portrait which Velazquez painted of him at this time. The canvas (A104) presents the impressive, full-length figure of Olivares clad in black with te the green cross of Alcántara on his doublet and cloak. The portrait is con- te ceived in the most subtle colour values, subdued in tone because of the black as worn by the Count-Duke, yet with a feeling of warmth and rich colour created jn by the deep red of the velvet curtain and table cover and the mellowness of the brown background. Much of the light in the picture is concentrated upon the proud face of Olivares, which is painted in a masterly manner. 21 HISPANIC SOCIETY PAINTINGS Velazquez was firmly established at court when a rival portraitist made his appearance—Rubens, who painted both Philip the Fourth and Queen Isabel de Borbón. Appointed gentleman usher the year before, Velazquez was commanded to enter- tain the distinguished visitor, and this he seems to have done to the great satisfaction of both artists. A court portrait (A 106) of the young and beautiful Queen is interesting because in the painting of the head the brush of Rubens seems to be indicated. An X-ray photograph shows that Rubens has painted his portrait over that of an earlier artist and that many changes were made. The elaborate court dress painted in a hard, dry manner is evi- dently by the earlier artist, but Rubens seems to have worked on the ruff. Rubens wrote that he had Aio8 been able to do the heads of all the royal family VELAZQUEZ from life during his Spanish visit. The head of the Portrait of a Little Girl Queen as it now appears bears the closest relationship to the sketch of her at Vienna and the portrait at Munich, both works by the hand of Rubens. When Velazquez received payment for The Drinkers, which he painted for the King, he set sail for Italy encouraged to do so, it is said, by Rubens. At Rome he produced two landscapes, a portrait of himself, and other works. As he was about to return to Spain a command from the King sent him to Naples to do a portrait of the Empress of the Holy Roman Empire, Maria of Hungary, Philip's sister. This is thought to be the bust portrait in the Museo del Prado. A portrait (A93) resembles a full-length of the Queen at Berlin which is considered to be a copy of a lost original. In 1631 Velazquez returned to Spain where he began at once to paint the King and the little Prince Baltasar Carlos. It was after the completion of the magnificent Surrender of Breda and before his second journey to Italy that he is thought to have painted the two portraits, a little girl (A 108) and Cardinal Gamillo Pamfili (AlOI). For the child's portrait Velazquez has used a tonality of rare delicacy. The gray green of the background is repeated in a lighter shade in her dress; there is no other colour except the rose and yellow of the flesh tones, the red of the lips, and the dark brown of the hair and eyes. The brush- work has the fresh and spirited quality of a sketch. VELAZQUEZ The extreme simplicity of this portrait is in striking Cardinal Gamillo Pamfili contrast to the many representations of the young Queen, Mariana of Austria, whom Velazquez was later called upon to depict so often with her false curls, red cheeks, and elaborate court dresses. 23 HISPANIC SOCIETY The painting of Cardinal Camille Pamfili (AI01) has much of the spontané- ity of the little girl's portrait, and the brilliant red of the cardinal's mozetta and biretta, his rosy face and dark glancing eyes make a rich contrast with the gray-green background. It seems probable that the Cardinal sat to Velazquez at Madrid rather than during that artist's second visit to Italy which took place in 1649. When Velazquez was at Rome he painted a portrait of his slave and assist- ant, Juan de Pareja. There are two pictures of Pareja extant which might have been painted at this time, one in the collection of the Earl of Radnor and the other at The Hispanic Society of America. The slave is represented in both works as having dark, bushy hair and a copper-coloured complexion. He is clad in a gray-green doublet and cloak and a white Walloon collar. As in the portrait of the little girl the artist has used a gray-green background. Whether or not the New York portrait (Al 897) is the original painted at Rome or a study for the Radnor example it would be difficult to decide, so excellently are both portraits painted and so closely do they resemble each other. Velazquez's next commission was an important one, for he was to paint the Pope, Innocent the Tenth. After completing this superb portrait, which is now in the Doria Palace, Rome, he returned to Spain where he was much oc- cupied with royal portraits and court duties. It was during his last years that he painted two masterpieces. The Maids of Honour and The Tapestry Workers. The artist's output was comparatively small, and for this the pleasure-loving Philip the Fourth must be partly blamed. He kept his favourite painter occu- pied with trivial duties and weary ceremonies, which in the end so sapped the vitality of Velazquez that his health failed him and he died on August 6th, 1660. Two portraits attributed to the slave of Velázquez, Juan de Pareja, repre- sent Martin de Leyva (A86) and Alonso Mora y Villalta (A9I). The excellent portrait of Leyva closely resembles that of a nobleman in the collection of the Earl of Stanhope which was formerly ascribed to Velázquez. The Hispanic Society's portrait has the addition of the coat of arms. That Pareja was an accomplished painter is evident in his picture The Calling of Saint Matthew, signed and dated 1661. Born in the same year as Veláz- COLLANTES quez, Francisco Collantes was one Jacob's Ladder of the earliest landscape painters of Spain for although he introduced a few figures into his compositions, he was more preoccupied with the background than anything else. He has borrowed his rich and radiant colour from the Venetians in his painting of Jacob's Lad- 24 PAINTINGS dcr (A2148). The lemon yellow, mauve, and deep blue of Jacob's robes are re- fleeted and repeated in the wind-blown draperies of the three small angels who mount the ladder. A pale, yellow light shining through blue-green clouds illumines a moonlit landscape of hills and gray-green trees. The angel at the foot of the ladder raises her arms in the graceful gesture of the angel in his signed Hagar and Ishmael at the Rhode Island School of Design. Alonso Cano of Granada, like Velazquez a pupil of Pacheco, went from Sevilla to Madrid at the summons of the Count-Duke of Olivares. Before his arrival at court he was already renowned as a sculptor, architect, and painter, and in 1642 he is called the painter to the Count-Duke. Martinez said Cano was not fond of work and preferred to talk of art rather than to create it and to look at engravings and drawings, and, indeed, some of his paintings indicate that he had looked too often upon the pictures of other artists. Velazquez does not seem to have influenced him although they were friends and traveled together through Castilla to collect pic- tures for the King. The Immaculate Conception, the young Vir- gin holding the Child, the dead Christ sup- ported by an angel are compositions which he repeated many times, always with appealing simplicity and skill. It is, however, as a sculptor rather than as a painter that Cano will be re- membered. Among his few portraits must be included the signed representation of a man (A3054) clad in black cassock and cloak, with white wrist and A3054 neck bands. The sensitive features, the brilliant CANO dark eyes, the expressive hands which hold Supposed Portrait of Antonio de Solís a y Rivadeneyra book and an hourglass would seem to suggest that this is the portrait of a scholar, possibly Antonio de Solís y Rivadeneyra, author of the Historia de la conquista de México. Cano's last years were spent at Granada where he did many works for the Cathedral. When death came to him in 1667 it found him in poverty and lone- liness. In the south of Spain a contemporary of Cano, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, gained for himself much renown. Separated from the stimulating art currents which he would have encountered at the court of Philip the Fourth, Murillo was content to work at Sevilla. He never traveled abroad and remained until his death a provincial painter like Zurbarán, living a life as quiet as that of the monks whose monasteries he adorned with so many devout pictures. After founding an academy of drawing at Sevilla and fulfilling numerous commissions, he entered the Brotherhood of la Caridad in 1665, for whose church he painted some of his finest pictures—Moses Striding the Roch, and 25 HISPANIC SOCIETY The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. Murillo's output was enormous, and he never ceased to paint until, while engaged upon work for the Capuchins at Cádiz, he fell ill and returned to his native Sevilla to die in 1682. All the warm colour of Andalucía, all the golden, vaporous atmosphere is caught and imprisoned in Murillo's pictures. He was a facile painter, unin- tellectual and uninspired, and yet it is not just to cast him too far down from the exalted position he held in past centuries. A cloying sweetness hangs like a cloud of incense over his works, obscuring their very real merit. Although preëminently the painter of the Immaculate Conception and the Virgin of the Rosary, Murillo had the Spanish flair for searching out street types, beggar boys, and flower sellers, but when he found them he did not A82 depict them with the realism of Ribera or the SCHOOL OF MURILLO veracity of Velazquez but sentimentalized them Saint Francis of Assisi almost beyond recognition. A painter whose contemporary fame was as great as that of Murillo would have many copyists and followers. Among those who were successful in basing their style upon that of the master were Francisco Meneses Ossorio, Alonso Miguel Tobar, and Bernardo German Llorente. Three paintings in the collection of the Hispanic Society have been given to the school of Murillo. Two of them seem to be by the same hand because they are painted in a subdued tonality, with the same dusky, golden flesh tones. One canvas (A82) represents Saint Francis of Assisi and the crucified Christ united in a mystical embrace and is a small variant of the subject as treated by Murillo, in the Museum at Sevilla, but much darker and without the cherubs who hold an open book. The other picture is an oval portrait of a dark-haired man (A 107) clad in black doublet with a white Walloon collar. The third painting is Christ the Good Shep- herd (A8I), a favourite theme of Murillo, in which the young Child surrounded by sheep descends a mountain path. So luminous are the tones, so del- A81 SCHOOL OF MURILLO icate the mother-of-pearl flesh tints, so excellent Christ the Good Shepherd the brushwork, that for years this small canvas was given to Murillo, and it is diflEcult to find a fol- lower sufficiently accomplished to have produced such a work, unless it be Tobar. Another Sevillian, contemporary with Murillo, but presenting a striking contrast in his manner of painting, was Juan de Valdés Leal. His pictures were 26 PAINTINGS also destined for the convents and churches of southern Spain, but, unlike Murillo, who was content to rest upon his well-earned laurels, Valdes Leal was restless and eager, an innovator rather than a follower. In spite of the some- what sketchy quality of his work and draftsmanship which was often careless, he is always vital and individual, never commonplace and insipid. The wealth of ornament, the imaginative fantasies which appear in his work place him among the Baroque artists. In the Flight of the Saracens of the Saint Clara series and the great painting of Elijah in the fiery chariot of the retablo of the Carmelitas Calzados, Córdoba, the artist has obtained the effect of rapid, violent action for which he was will- ing to subordinate all else. Most excellent are his pictures for the Hospital de la Caridad, Sevilla, especially the dramatic portrait of Miguel de Mañara and the two realistic and extraordinary paintings of the Hieroglyphs of the End of Our Days. These latter works, which show Death triumphant over the vanities of the world, together with his many repre- sentations of decapitated heads, have earned for the artist the title of "el pintor de los muertos." It was in 1661, the year after his appoint- ment as Diputado to the Academy of Draw- ing which Murillo helped to found, that Valdes Leal signed the painting of the Via Crucis (A59). The poignant figure of the Christ swathed in gray-lavender garments, bends beneath the weight of a heavy cross. A strange light flickers upon His pallid face. His hands, and the twisted folds of cloth. Crowding behind Him is a mourning VALDES LEAL group Via Crucis which includes Saint John the Evangelist in a flame-coloured mantle and the Virgin in purple tunic and blue-green cloak. The sky is silvery blue, and in the far distance a yellow haze veils the procès- sion as it winds its way around a high cliff. The unusual range of colour in this painting is very characteristic of Valdes Leal. A painter who resembles Valdes Leal in at least one of his pictures. The Deposition, at Marseilles, is Antonio Pereda y Salgado of Valladolid. His large canvas, The Relief of Genoa by the Marquis of Santa Cruz, is perhaps the best known of all his works. The signed Saint Anthony of Padua and the Christ Child (A63) dated 1655, with its rather harsh colouring of yellow brown, gray, and red and its dry handling, suffers in comparison with the same subject as treated by Murillo. Not unlike this picture is Pereda's Saint Joseph with the Christ Child and Saint John the Baptist in the former Royal Palace at Madrid. Spanish painting began a slow decline towards the end of the seventeenth century, for the painters of the school of Madrid were unequal to upholding the splendid traditions of the golden age of Philip the Fourth, excellent colour- 27 HISPANIC SOCIETY ists though they were. Foreign influences, notably those of Rubens and Van Dyck, held them in thrall, and it is unusual to find among them a man of strength and originality. During the reign of Charles the Second until his death in 1700 the artists of this school had their comparatively brief existence and received generous patronage from that unfortunate monarch. Perhaps the most important of them all was Juan Carreño de Miranda, born at Aviles in 1614. He came to Madrid where he painted many frescoes and portraits which show his admiration for Van Dyck. An Immaculate Conception (A85), signed in 1670, has an earlier version in the Cathedral at Vitoria. The colour is much the same in both works; the brown-haired Virgin is clad in white tunic, purple undersleeves, and blue cloak, and rosy cherubs float across a blue sky. The large painting at New York has the spaciousness and delicacy of colour DE MIRANDA which made Carreño famous as a fresco CARRENO The Immaculate Conception painter. Appointed Court Painter to Charles the Second, the artist recorded the stern features of the Queen Mother, Mariana of Austria, and the depressing countenance of the sovereign as a child and young man. In a portrait (A61) at the Society, Charles appears at about eighteen years of age. Carreño has been most fortunate with the harmonious colour scheme of rose, crimson, and silvery gray, and the slender figure of the young and sickly King, clad in half armour and brocade, acquires a melancholy dignity from the attributes of royalty which surround him. The famous lion table, the gauntlet, the red-plumed armet, and the great crimson curtain draped across the background lend to his insignificant figure an air of authority which he was far from possessing. It has been suggested that this is the portrait which was sent to France as a gift to Maria Luisa A6i CARRENO DE MIRANDA of Orleans, the future bride of the King. A vari- Charles the Second ant in the Museo del Greco, Toledo, signed and King of Spain dated 1681, shows the King several years older. Of a type quite different from the portrait of the King is that of Bernabé 28 PAINTINGS de Ochoa de Chinchetru y Fernández de Zúñiga (A2006) at the age of thirty- five. Clad in black costume and dark cloak his sombre figure is a foil for the MUÑOZ signature of Juan de Alfaro y Gómez María Luisa, Queen of Spain and was so described when in the Lying in State Salamanca sale. A portrait of Philip the Fourth (A62) depicting him at the age of forty is attributed to Carreño de Miranda. A background representing Cordovan leather accentuates the brown of the King's hair and his pale, golden flesh tones. Whether by Carreño or not, the work is noteworthy for its restraint and the delicacy of its handling. An excellent portrait (A92) by an unknown artist but worthy of Carreño de Miranda shows the elaborate costumes worn by the ladies of this period. The bell-shaped skirts, pointed bodices with low necks and full sleeves are in great contrast to the more modest fashions of an ^ earlier day. A j f* strange and interesting painting is that of . Maria Luisa of Orleans lying in state (A64). The young and beautiful wife of Charles the Second ^ was destined to reign as queen of Spain for only ten years, and after her sudden death in 1689 the .. I Shod Carmelites of Madrid ordered this paint- | ing of her from Sebastián Muñoz. Her body, r ^¡¡ÊÈjr dressed as a nun, lies upon a magnificent cata- [> falque surrounded by lighted candles while two cherubs hold aloft a medallion bearing her like- Less important than Carreño, yet equally representative of the school of Madrid, are two Á67 artists, Juan Antonio Escalante and Antolinez, 1 ' Annunciation who n 11 r-*!*! \T • were influenced by Flemish or Venetian art. Escalante, who had a brilliant tonality and facile brush, did not live to realize the full extent of his talent, but The Annunciation (A67) which he signed in 1653 29 HISPANIC SOCIETY shows much promise. The auburn-haired, gray-eyed Virgin kneels in a loggia. As Gabriel flies towards her a small cherub lifts the twisted folds of a curtain above her head. Unusual in the Spanish palette but very pleasing are the cool grays, blues, and olive greens, the yellow and rose colour of this painting. To Claudio José Vicente Antolínez y Sarabia has been attributed the Saint John the Baptist (A66). The Baptist's black eyes flash from beneath a mass of dark hair. Wrapped in white sheepskin he holds in one hand a cross with a white scroll. In the Cathedral at Valencia is another Saint John which Antolínez painted in 1663. The school to which these artists belonged ceased to exist with the arrival of the Italian Luca Giordano in 1692 and the death in the next year of Claudio Coello, who had gained renown with his painting The Holy Eucharist. A seventeenth-century Sevillian artist whose life remains something of a mystery is Marcos Correa. Two signed paintings of still-life subjects (A 1845, Al 846) from a convent at Valladolid might be those described by Ceán Bermúdez as works "which copy pine boards with various papers, trifles, inkwells and other things copied from nature with much truth, mastery, and good effect". In the eighteenth century the artistic decline became a sad reality when Spanish artists failed to attract the attention of the Bourbon king, Philip the Fifth, and he brought to Spain Frenchmen as his court painters. Michel Ange Houasse, Jean Ranc, and Louis Michel Van Loo, although they painted good portraits of the royal family, had little influence upon Spanish art. Certain drawings in the col- lection of the Society date from the eighteenth century and are attributed to Juan Conchillos y Falcó and to one of the Vergaras Coronation of the Royal Infante of Spain, Don Carlos of Bourbon of Valencia, to in the Cathedral, Palermo José Camarón y Boronat, and other artists. The design for a fan (A761) which Francisco Preciado de la Vega drew to celebrate the coronation of the royal prince, Don Carlos of Bourbon, later Charles the Third, in the Cathedral at Palermo, belongs to a set, others of which are in the British Museum, London, and the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. Soon after Charles the Third came to the throne in 1759, he summoned to Madrid the Italian fresco painter Tiepolo and Anton Rafael Mengs of Bo- hemia to decorate the new Royal Palace. Spanish artists were also employed upon this great undertaking, and although Francisco Bayeu and Mariano Salvador de Maella could hardly equal the marvels of Tiepolo, their work is not without interest. A sketch (A 1222) by Maella in the collection and another in the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, were done in preparation for his fresco An Allegory of Hercules Between Virtue and Vice. 30 PAINTINGS To Charles the Third and Mengs must be given much of the credit for the awakened interest in the antique which characterizes this period. The recently founded Royal Academy of San Fernando, at Madrid, benefited by their liberality when that in- stitution acquired many plaster casts of Greek and Roman sculp- ture. Casts of the works recently discovered at Herculaneum were also brought to Spain by the King. Mengs, apostle of classicism, left a mark upon Spanish paint- ing which did not pass away for more than a generation. His por- traits, correct, elegant, and dull, his religious paintings based upon classicist principles were admired by the best Spanish artists. In these inauspicious times A1222 there appeared a man of origi- MAELLA nality and daring, the Aragonese Sketch for An Allegory of Hercules Between Virtue and Vice Goya, who was to prove that Spanish painting had died down only to spring up again with renewed vigour and fresh beauty. Arriving at Madrid as a student in 1763 he had before him the recently completed frescoes of Tiepolo in the former Royal Palace and at Aranjuez. A journey to Italy opened to Goya new vistas but ill prepared him to work under the stern eye of the academic Bayeu when he began the frescoes for the Church of Nuestra Señora del Pilar at Zaragoza in 1771. Other murals for the Cartuja de Aula Dei and the Palace of the Counts of Sobradiel show that it was from Tiepolo, the last of the great Venetians, that Goya drew his inspiration for the radiant colour and innocent charm of these early Aragonese works. Upon his return to Madrid he was commissioned by the court painter Mengs to design cartoons for the tapestry manufactories of Santa Barbara. Here he is in a riant mood, depicting the life about him with such graceful gayety, such brilliant colour, that Madrid of the eighteenth century seems the most delight- ful city in the world. Goya's talents as a portrait painter developed slowly, and he was almost forty before he began to devote his attention seriously to this branch of his art. The dull representations of the counts and marquises painted for the Banco de España, Madrid, are hardly more interesting than the work of his con- temporaries. Also to this early period belong the portrait of the artist at his easel and the painting in which he is seen presenting a canvas to the Count of Floridablanca. After the completion of the two pictures on the life of Saint Francis Borgia and the artist's journey to Valencia in 1790, the "gray period" 31 HISPANIC SOCIETY PAINTINGS began in which Goya distinguished himself as a portraitist of the first rank with his superb canvases of La Tirana, Sebastián Martínez, and Francisco Bayeu. A large portrait of the Duchess of Alba would seem to date from the visit Goya is said to have made to Sanlúcar de Barrameda in 1796 and 1797 where the Duchess, recently widowed, had retired. In the portrait (A 102) the young and spirited Duchess, the arbiter of Madrid society, is wearing a ring inscribed "Goya" on the forefinger with which she points to his name and the date 1797 upon the sandy soil at her feet. She is dressed as a maja in a black costume with a yellow jacket, scarlet and gold sash about her small waist, and black mantilla over her dark curls. Her slender, aristocratic figure is placed against a background of delicate blue sky and trees painted in tones of palest gray. A sketch in the Museo del Prado from the smaller of the Sanlúcar sketchbooks shows the Duchess in somewhat the same attitude and cos- GOYA tume as in the large portrait but with lace veil- Manuel Lapeña ing her eyes and the shadowy figures of women Marquis of Bondad Real behind her. Although it is no longer possible to believe that the Duchess posed for the Maja Nude and the Maja Clothed, there are several other portraits of her, one painted by Goya when she was about twenty years old, another dated 1795 where she appears in white dress and red sash, and the Aliaga portrait said to have been done not long before her death. Towards the end of the century Goya was much occupied in painting generals, ambassadors, and statesmen—Urrutia, Guillemardet, and Jovellanos— and when in 1799 he depicted Manuel Lapeña, Marquis of Bondad Real (A99), a touch of delicate irony crept into his work, as Beruete noticed. The Marquis is clad as Colonel of the Guards in dark blue uniform, red vest, and much silver braid. He points to his own name and that of Goya written in large letters on the ground while small soldiers drill before their barracks like mechanical toys and white A1890 clothes wave on the clothesline. This GOYA portrait was Pedro Mocarte finished a year before that satirical masterpiece. The Family of Charles the Fourth. Beruete has noted that in his later military portraits the artist used a gloomy 33 HISPANIC SOCIETY intense tonality and that this was especially evident in his portrait of Godoy painted about 1800. This manner so different from the "gray period" may be studied in the portrait of Alberto Foraster (A 103), which bears the date 1804 and represents the Brigadier in black coat with scarlet trimmings and buff- coloured trousers standing against a dark back- ground. High lights rather cruelly accentuate the thinning gray hair, the dark, tired eyes, and sag- ging mouth. To about the same period belongs the painting of Pedro Mocarte (Al890), an organist who posed for his portrait dressed as a bullfighter in reddish- brown cloak, gray jacket embroidered in blue, Aioo black, and silver, and hair arranged in a black net. GOYA Sketch for Scenes of May Third, 1808 The sobriety of this picture with its dark back- ground and bronze flesh tones gives much the same impression as does that of Foraster. Goya was at Madrid when the French invasion took place and he must have been present at the terrible events which he painted in the Prado canvases. Episode of the French Invasion, 1808 and Scenes of May Third, 1808. A sketch (A 100) for the latter work is so vivid, so spontaneous, that it could only have been painted by an eyewitness. The morning sky is still blue black, and the yellow light of a lantern placed upon the ground illuminates the scene of horror as the troops of Murat shoot down the little group of Spaniards gathered upon the hill. The War of Independence changed everything for Goya; his whole life was darkened, and old and deaf he retired to his country house the walls of which he decorated with fantastic murals. Many fine series of etchings were produced at this late period, notably Los Desastres de la guerra. Upon the return of Ferdinand the Seventh Goya had been made Painter to the King, and it was nec- essary to ask the royal permission when his ill health made it advisable for him to go to France. After establishing himself at Bordeaux in 1824 he painted several portraits and made many drawings. When Goya returned to Madrid for a brief visit in 1826, Ferdinand the Seventh ordered Vicente López y Portaña to paint Goya's portrait. Two years later his death occurred at Bordeaux, and this portrait by López is a valuable record of his appearance at the age of eighty. That López y Portaña was not the man to con- tinue the traditions of the great Aragonese but only a portrait painter of mediocre accomplishments is shown by such formal and dull portraits as that of King Ferdinand the Seventh (A309). 34 PAINTINGS Perhaps if the Spanish artists of the nineteenth century had not been so eagerly engaged in the battle taking place between classicists and romanticists, more of them would have followed in the footsteps of , Goya, It was difficult for them to throw aside the yoke of classicism, imposed upon them by Mengs, and to trust to the revolutionary genius of their own Goya. To some follower of Goya living in the first half of the nineteenth century and not to the artist himself must be given the seventy drawings in sepia in the Hispanic Society's collection (A690-A759). Forty-six of them come from one sketchbook as the leaves are of the same size and bear the same watermark, that of Isidro Estevan, The other twenty-four leaves are smaller and althoug^h identical in size have two different water- A750 , t . il- artist 1 i.,r unknown marks. In subject matter and technique they differ a sketch radically from Goya's drawings. There is little humour in these representations and nothing of Goya's caustic wit; many are direct notes of an artist interested in the manners and customs of his day. There are no . | strange it is only because some of them portray j circus folk, actors and actresses from a traveling 4 theatre, or men and women leaping in the air to j dance steps of some baile de candil as their fingers ^ jHBW play castanets. The circus men wear large plumed hats, strum guitars or play castanets, a man and laugh or cry. A man who lucas a tossed on the horn of a bull. Strayed from some Holy Week procession is the Via Crucis figure and from some carnival scene the lady in the dark mask. A man with a big head is a caricature in the contem- porary style, and a woman in a poke bonnet dis- plays a fashion prevalent at Madrid after 1835. Eugenio Lucas, born in 1824, too late to have known Goya, was an ardent copyist of his work and A117 seems to have arrived at an understanding of his Victims of War gcnius but never to have attained to his masterly technique. Although a student at the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, his original and very uneven talent developed inde- pendently of classicism and romanticism. The French Invasion was as fresh in 35 HISPANIC SOCIETY his mind as if he had been standing at Goya's side witnessing the carnage; with strange persistence he dwells upon the events which took place long before his time. In reconstructing them he uses a broad impressionistic manner, singularly effective and markedly different from that employed by his illustrious con- temporaries when they produced historical canvases. One of his earliest works, On a Balcony (A2146), is in the Society's collection. With rapid brush strokes he paints the tortured figures of Victims of War (A117), an impression of such stark realism that Goya's Sketch for Scenes of May Third, 1808 (AlOO) alone surpasses it. Goyawas again the inspiration for Lucas's Car- nival Scene (Al 16) where revelers with goblin faces sing and shout in the night air, raising wine glasses and playing musical instruments, and for Pro- cession (A 153) where gnomelike bodies bend be- fore the wind and rain of an approaching storm. A68o MADRAZO Y AGUDO The Andalusian artist, Valeriano Domínguez Antonio Sola Bécquer, the brother of the poet, recorded as did Alenza the old customs which were so rapidly passing. His espadas and pica- dors, dark-eyed Andalusian girls, and Castillan peasants all belong to that ro- mantic company which was so soon to be scattered and forgotten. Five small oil paintings (A227-A231) and a pencil drawing The Benediction (A760) represent Bécquer in the collection. As these regional painters turned towards the heart of Spain for material, so the classicists looked to Paris and Rome for guidance. José de Madrazo y Agudo, José Aparicio, and Juan Antonio Ribera were leaders in this period as Mengs and Bayeu had been in an earlier day. Madrazo studied at Paris with David as may be seen from his Death of Patroclus. Later he went to Rome where he was imprisoned in the Castle of Sant'Angelo for refusing to acknowledge Joseph Buonaparte. Two sketches (A680) of his fellow prisoner, the sculptor Antonio Sola, were prob- ably made at this time. From Rome in the year 1814 dates the portrait sketch of Madrazo (A682) by the Italian Bartolomeo Pinelli. In 1818 Madrazo returned to Spain where he taught for years in the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, and became Director of the Museo del Prado. A286 His son, Federico de Madrazo y Kuntz, whose MADRAZO Y KUNTZ Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres portrait (A278) he painted in 1833, continued the excellent traditions of portraiture associated with his name. Federico de Madrazo began his career by studying at Paris with Ingres and at the age of eighteen painted, in the manner of his teacher, a portrait (A286) of him which called forth much praise. Madrazo and his friend 36 PAINTINGS Carlos Luis de Ribera y Fieve, also the son of a classicist painter, were both tempted by romanticism as two early portraits show, Ribera's painting of the young Federico (A 1784) done at Paris in 1839 and Madrazo's of his brother Pedro (A 1783) finished in 1842. Both artists painted Maria Cristina of Bourbon (A 109 and A281) and her daughter Isabel the Second (A248 and A287). Madrazo's sketch of Isabel (A248) was a likeness done in 1851 and a companion piece to his sketch of the King, Francisco de Asís (A247), whom she had been so unfortunate as to marry five years earlier. Madrazo having been named Painter to the Cham- her had the opportunity of paint- ing several full-length portraits of the Queen as well as most of the beautiful women of the day and many of the distinguished men. After the middle of the nine- A303 FORTUNY teenth century large historical Arabs Ascending a Hill subjects attracted much favour- able attention at the exhibitions. Eduardo Cano commemorated Alvaro de Luna and Columbus, Gisbert the execution of Torrijos, and Rosales painted Isabel the Catholic on her deathbed. Very typical of this school is Victor Manzano y Mejorada's huge canvas entitled Rodrigo Vázquez Visiting the Family of Antonio Pérez in Prison (A1785) which was exhibited in 1862. The Catalan Fortuny began by painting mediocre historical canvases which, however, gained for him a scholarship at Rome. He had not been in Italy long when a happy chance sent him to Africa, commissioned by the Diputación Provincial of Barcelona to depict the events of the Moroccan campaign. Freed from the atmosphere of the studios, the young Fortuny found himself in the brilliant sunshine of a strange country in the midst of stirring events and colourful figures. The impression made upon him at this early period lasted his lifetime and caused him to become an ardent apostle of colour, light, and movement in painting. In these years Fortuny began the large battle pieces of Tetuan and Wad-Ras. Painted with much brio and skill those vivid impressions. Flying Dust and Arab Fantasy, place Fortuny in the first rank of the Orien- talists. From one of his Moroccan trips must date Arabs Ascending a Hill (A303), for un- like many of the African subjects, which he worked over at Rome or Barcelona, this canvas has an impressionistic quality as though the artist had finished sketching the scene on the green hillside while the wind was still sweeping the clouds in from the blue sea and the Arabs were 37 HISPANIC SOCIETY passing before him in many-coloured robes blown about their lean figures. Two small sketches (A171 and A243) seem also to date from his African trips, one an Arab holding a long musket, his brown body partially clad in red and white cloth, and another a dark shelter seen beneath a dazzling blue sky. Arabs again appear in a water colour (A544) painted at night in the house of Luis de Madrazo. Clad in loose garments of gray, orange, blue, and brown, they crouch beneath the shadows of a dark archway well out of the white glare of the courtyard. In 1867 Fortuny was at Madrid where he copied several Coyas including the portrait of Pedro Mocarte (A242). From the next year dates his Portico of the Church of San Ginh, Madrid (A259), and two delicate water colours. Birth of a Butterfly and The Idyl. Possibly a nostalgia for Africa sent the artist to Granada where he painted such Moorish subjects as Alherca Court and The Tribunal in the Alhamhra. As a genre painter of extraordinary virtuosity, Fortuny is most often re- membered although it was not until 1870, four years before his death, that he finished The Spanish Wedding. This successful work was soon followed by other pictures of the same type. The Garden of the Poets and The Choice of a Model. A close friend of Fortuny and an artist who felt the magic of his genius was the landscapist Martin Rico y Ortega. Records of a trip which Rico made to Switzerland in 1860 are to be found in two sketchbooks (A1733 and A1747) and seventy-two sketches in pencil and crayon in the collection, for the most part studies of trees, rocks, mountain peaks, and villages. In 1862 Rico was in England and his sketchbook (A 1734) shows the interest which he took in the work of Turner and other landscape painters. The artist spent many years in France painting landscapes. A water colour (A 1961) of a river with fishermen, a boat, and green trees against a blue sky may date from his French period. Six sketchbooks (A 1735-36, A1738- 41) are full of material gathered by the artist in France, and three more date from a trip which he made to Cabás in the French Pyr- enees. Two other sketchbooks (A 1742 and A1746) seem to have been used by Rico AS43 while in Spain, RICO Landscape Among Rico's ten landscapes in oil in the collection, two show most clearly his progress and the change which took place in his manner of painting. One of them is an unfinished sketch (A 123) of green trees reflected in a quiet river, conceived in the manner of Daubigny and painted during his French period, the other a landscape (A 129) done with small brush strokes and close attention to detail, yet scintillating with light and colour, would seem to date from his contacts with Fortuny. Much of Fortuny's vivacity of touch is reflected in Rico's water colour Landscape (A543) where green leaves make a shim- 38 PAINTINGS mering pattern upon white walls, and shadows flicker over white statues and the bright dresses of women. Rico spent many years at Venice, and to his in- numerable interpretations of that city of light and colour he owes much of his renown. An artist whose name will always be associated with those of Fortuny and Rico, because of his masterly pen-and-ink work and his brilliantly executed water colours, is Daniel Urrabieta Vierge. Born at Madrid in 1851, he went to Paris just before the Franco-Prussian War and remained to work on the staff of Le Monde illustré. For many years he devoted his time to illustrating the works of Victor Hugo, Michelet, and other authors. Vierge revolutionized the art of illustrating in the nineteenth century by his brilliant work and by the new methods which he invented to allow the engraver more freedom. Although much occupied he occasionally found time to return to Spain, and from a trip made in 1871 dates Getafe (A672), a water colour of yellow cliffs beneath a dazzling blue sky and a shepherd of Castilla surrounded by his sheep. When Vierge returned from another visit to Spain, he brought with him many water colours which Pennell admired saying that they were as fine in colour, as crisp in touch, as those of Rico. Among them may have been two landscapes (A671 and A778) in the collection, one a sweep of upland with distant snow-capped peaks and a sky veiled in gray rain clouds and the other a sailing ship at anchor in blue waters from which rise gray-green hills. Much of the artist's most successful work was done in gouache, a medium used for many of the sketches in the collection, some of them drawn as illustra- tions for Le Monde illustré. Among the Span- ish subjects are Christmas in Spain (A678), A Shepherd of Salamanca (A677), The Es- caped Bull (A762), and three scenes, Vin- tagers in Spain (A55I, A552, A554). While engaged upon the drawings to illus- trate Quevedo's Histoire de Pablo de Ségovie Vierge was stricken with paralysis and lost the use of his right hand, but with great courage he began his career again, working VIERGE with his left hand. His fame increased after Illustration for Pablo de Segovia, the Spanish Sharper by Quevedo. A Sketch the publication of the pen-and-ink drawings of Pablo, unequaled in their delicacy of line and sparkling humour. Ten sketches in the collection were done for the English edition of the book, published in 1892, and in them may be studied Vierge's very individual method of placing a patch A8os 39 HISPANIC SOCIETY of solid black to give contrast to the refinement of line in the rest of the design. Jaccaci's On the trail of Don Quixote was profusely illustrated with sketches which Vierge made during a trip through La Man- cha. One hundred and sixty-three of the sketches are in the collection of the Society. Delicate touches of water colour in most of the sketches enhance their 0 charm. Vierge's illustrations for Chateaubriand's Les aventures du dernier Ahencerage, which appeared at Paris in 1897, were especially successful, and the twelve pencil sketches on versos of others in the collection are of great interest, as are also two gouaches (A766 and A767) which he made for Zorrilla's El escultor y el duque. It was not until after the death of Vierge in 1904 that the monumental edition of Don Quixote was MADRAZO Y CARRETA published, to the illustrating of which he had de- María Cristina, Queen of Spam yoted SO much time and talent. The Society owns six of these sketches (A927-A931 and versos) which proclaim Vierge as the illus- trator par excellence of his countryman's masterpiece. Other Spanish artists spent a great deal of their time at Paris and were the friends of Fortuny, Raimundo de Madrazo y Carreta and José Jiménez Aranda. An accomplished painter of genre, Jiménez Aranda was also an illustrator of Don Quixote, but a sketch (A546) in the collection for an edition published in 1905-1908 shows that he was not the equal of Vierge. His large canvas Consum- matum Est (A308), dated 1888, was painted but a few years before he became a follower of the French naturalists. Raimundo de Madrazo, the son of Federico de Madrazo, not only excelled in genre painting but was, like his father, a distinguished portrait- ist. He was a student at the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, and one of his earliest sketches. Disembarkation of the Body of the Apostle James (A 198), shows his latent talent, as does Sketch for The Allegory of the Cortes of 1834 (A 1780), a prelim- inary study for the fresco in the French palace of Maria Cristina of Bourbon. His portraits of the statesman Mitre (A45), the scholars Foulché- SALA Delbosc (A40), Morel Fatio (A38), and Vignaud Ramón María de las Mercedes de (A39), as well as his portrait of the Queen Regent Campoamor y Campoosorio Cristina (A29) reveal him as a worthy exponent of the Madrazo traditions which had become so firmly established at Madrid. His brother Ricardo de Madrazo, a pupil of Fortuny, chose genre and African subjects as his special field, painting such pleasant water colours as A 40 PAINTINGS Street in Granada (A545), which was done in 1871 when he was at the Alhambra with Fortuny. Painters of genre who were often at Paris were Francisco Domingo y Marqués and Emilio Sala y Francés, both from the province of Valencia. Representa- tive of Domingo's work is The Studio of Goya (A260) and of Sala's are four small oil sketches in the collection. Both artists were portrait painters of a cer- tain distinction as may be seen by Domingo's portrait of himself (A37) and that of his mother (A 112) and the two portraits (A225 and A263) which Sala painted of himself. As a por- traitist Sala is perhaps the more accomplished. His representation of the poet Campoamor (A53), ex- hibited in 1899, is a direct piece of work, boldly handled and original in colour, which would be con- sidered distinguished in any period. Another Valencian, Ignacio Pinazo Camarlench, who is represented in the collection by a portrait of himself (Al 70) was notable for his clear and brilliant palette and the freedom of his brushwork. Among the landscape painters of this period was Aureliano de Beruete of Madrid. His teacher, The Lantern, Cathedral, Tarragona the noted Carlos de Haes, who succeeded the ro- manticist, Pérez Villaamil, believed in working out-of-doors and took his pupil sketching to the north of Spain and the Balearic Islands. The beautiful and desolate lands of his own province made a strong appeal to Beruete, a Castillan by birth. In The Bridge of Alcántara, Toledo (A300) and the Castle of San Servando (A 146) he has with calm and clear-eyed vision portrayed the serene landscape. The Roman aqueduct stands out against a blue sky in Segovia from the Boceguillas Road (A301), and snow-covered ranges lie beyond green fields in View of the Guadarrama Mountains (A299). The famous painter of historical subjects, Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz, of Aragón, is represented in the collection by small landscapes in oil which he painted during a trip to Avila and the Guadarramas in 1912. Two are of the Monastery of El Paular, Guadarrama (A220 and A222), and one is called Among the Toros de Guisando (A221 ) ; all of them have the spontaneous charm of sketches done in the open. A poet and a playwright as well as a landscape painter was Santiago Rusiñol y Prats of Barcelona whose Calvario at Sagunto (A2034) is in the collection. Two views of Peñíscola (Al 755 and A1756) by another Catalan, Luis Graner y Arrufi, show blue sea and sunshine on white walls. One of the finest of the modern landscape painters is Joaquim Mir Trinxet of Barcelona who painted The Lantern, Cathedral, Tarragona (A2033). Paris was still the lodestar of Spanish artists towards the end of the nine- teenth century, and the plein-air school of Bastien-Lepage and Jules Breton found many ardent followers, among them Laureano Barran, the Catalan, and 41 HISPANIC SOCIETY Gonzalo Bilbao y Martínez, the Sevillian, Peasants and fishermen had become objects of interest to the artist, and scenes of humble life were represented with satisfying realism. Bilbao's pictures painted out-of-doors in the orange groves and harvest fields are among his best works. Later he became known as the painter of the cigar makers of Sevilla, and to this series belongs Workshop in the Tobacco Factory, Seüilla (A2037). Barran, who is represented in the collection by his portrait of Pablo Bosch y Barran (A32), was also a painter of peasants and fishermen. The regional painters whose art is so characteristically Spanish are well represented in the collection of the Society. The gay costumes of Andalucía are worn in Pedro Ribera's Carmen (A306), where a woman in a bright-coloured mantón and dark blue mantilla is seated at a table beside a man in brown suit and broad-brimmed hat. The interesting charros and charras of Salamanca have a painter in Carlos Vazquez Ubeda of Ciudad Real as do also the peasants of the Valley of Ansó. The latter are represented in his large canvas The Honey- moon (A307). Here the couple are clad in gala array: the woman wearing the distinctive green baize dress of Ansó with high white collar and SOROLLA puffed Beaching the Boat sleeves and the man a long, brown cloak over his dark suit and purple sash. The painting was completed in 1911. The twentieth century had begun with a triumph for Spanish art when the Valencian Joaquin Sorolla y Bastida received the medal of honour at the Paris universal exposition. A strong man was needed to turn the current towards the naturalistic movement, and Sorolla was fully equipped for the task. He worked out-of-doors painting rapidly with amazing skill and a modern understanding of colour values. A regional painter, who but rarely strayed from his own prov- ince, he was at his best when he chose such subjects as Mending Sails and The Beach, Valencia, although pictures of the type of Another Marguerite brought him early fame. The great progress which his art had made by 1903 may be seen in his large painting Beaching the Boat (A58), a theme which he treated many times but never in richer or more vibrant tones. A late afternoon sun colours the tawny hides of the oxen who churn the green water to foam as they prepare to drag a fishing boat ashore. The bronzed faces of the fishermen glow red, and the white sail turns golden in the sun's slanting rays. Sorolla painted Rocks of the Cape, Jâvea (A 150) in 1903. This small town, 42 PAINTINGS HISPANIC SOCIETY south of Valencia, with its red-brown rocks and richly coloured sea was the background for Sorolla's paintings of boy swimmers and girls bathing in shel- tered coves. In the large painting Leonese Peasants (A297), 1907, the artist shows a group gathered about a small donkey in gay pink trappings. The men are wrapped in brown cloaks and the women wear the bright-coloured costumes of their province, in which red and green, blue and yellow predominate. Warm A2137 SOROLLA sunlight plays over their sturdy figures casting Beach of Valencia by Morning Light shadows on the white wall behind them. Four lyrics in honour of the sea and sun of Va- lencia are the paintings done in 1908: After the Bath (A296), Sea Idyl (A298), Children on the Beach (A2138), and Beach of Valencia hy Morning Light (A2137). In these studies, saturated with light and colour, are the wet, gleaming bodies of children, the iridescent sands, and fishing boats drifting in on long, blue waves. Sorolla's paintings were exhibited for the first time in the United States in 1909 at The Hispanic Society of America. The artist received a commission from Thomas F. Ryan of New York to paint Columbus Leaving Palos, and he was engaged upon this work in 1909 and 1910. His portrait of the Duke of Veragua, a descendant of Columbus, shows that he was the model for his illustrious ancestor. The collection of thirty-nine drawings and ten oil studies presented by Sorolla to the Society testify to the careful research which he did in preparation for the picture and are more dramatic and satisfying than is the finished painting. It was in 1910 that the artist completed the large canvas, Segovian Peasant Girls (A3060). The rich colours of the peasant costumes worn by the two girls contrast with the cold background of the tomb of Doña Beatriz Pacheco in the Monastery of El Parral, Segovia. The earliest portraits in the collection by Sorolla are two (A294 and A305) which he painted of his wife, Clotilde García de Sorolla, in 1902. His favourite model was his daughter Maria Clotilde who is seen accompanied by her grandmother in a painting (A27) dated 1905. The artist himself is represented in two canvases (A28 and A1948) in the collection. A gift of Alfonso the Thirteenth to the Society were the A3060 SOROLLA Sorolla portraits of himself (A55) and the Queen, Segovian Peasant Girls Victoria Eugenia (A54). A collection of thirty-nine portraits by Sorolla which belong to the Society vary in date from 1904 to 1920. Among the noted Spaniards are included writers, 44 PAINTINGS artists, statesmen, and sculptors; the only woman represented is the Countess of Pardo Bazán. From his early portraits, rather severe and monotonous with their olive-gray backgrounds, such as those of Beruete and Pidal y Mon, to the very modern portraits of Marañón and Pérez de Ayala painted in the last years, Sorolla shows an increased interest in colour, using a broader treatment and a much freer handling of his subject. The last great achievement of his career was the series of fourteen large oil paintings. Provinces of Spain, which he began for The Hispanic Society of America in 1911 and completed in 1920. They were placed in their permanent setting in 1926. A great many of the preparatory sketches for the series are also in the collection, while more finished A192S studies may be seen at the Museo de Sorolla, Madrid, SOROLLA in the collections of the artist's daughters, Maria Jacinto Benavente y Martínez Clotilde and Elena, and the Victoriano Lorente Collection, Madrid. Sorolla succeeded in extracting the distinctive flavour of each region so that the grave and gay intermingle in the long frieze which encircles the room, dedi- cated to the Provinces of Spain. Black-clad and sober are the men of Navarra as they meet at Roncal to receive their tribute from the Frenchmen of Beam. In holiday mood are the peasants of the Valley of Ansó in Aragón, who dance the joia under the shadow of the rugged mountain peaks. Next to them are the weather-beaten fisher folk of Cataluña gathered to market their fish beneath the wind-twisted cedars of the rocky Mediterranean seacoast. Valencia (A 1805) is a blaze of colour beneath a hot blue sky with girls in flower-tinted dresses and men as gayly clad forming a procession which winds along iris- bordered roads. Elche (Al 806) is an oasis in green and gold twilight where branches of tall palms protect the gatherers of golden dates from the direct rays of the sun. Sevilla. The Dance (A1807) foams with colour and movement, swirling deep- fringed shawls, girls swaying to the rhythm of their castanets as they dance in a white patio by a flower-encircled fountain. The wide sweep of the plains stretch out to meet the sky, and horse- men drive bulls along a dusty road bordered by cactus in Andalucía. El Encierro (A 1808). Through the narrow streets of Sevilla, barefoot penitents, clad in black, walk in Holy Week procession bearing a paso of the Virgin. In the next painting, Sevilla is at the bullfight, and the espadas, their bright capes flung about their slender bodies, salute the president from the 45 HISPANIC SOCIETY arena. Extremadura (Al811) has an earthy flavour with its sleek gray pigs brought to market by men in tan leathern aprons and women warmly dressed in red and black wool. Ayamonte (Al 812) is all silver, blue, and violet from the shining scales of the tunnies, being hauled ashore, to the waters of the Guadiana which reach to the purple lands of Portugal. Red-brown cattle, a bagpipe player in a cocked hat, and buxom women in orange or yellow kerchiefs embody the homely beauty of Galicia. Cool green and misty gray are the hills and meadows of Guipúzcoa where the sturdy Basques play at bowls. Castilla (Al815) is a procession in honour of Saint Isidore, which streams across the long canvas with magenta banners waving and music playing. In the background the vast panorama of Castilla reveals the walled city of Avila, the snowy Guadarramas, Segovia's Roman aqueduct, and Toledo's Alcázar. This land of sunshine which Sorolla has made his own is but one side of the picture; there is also the sombre, tragic, and magnificent Spain of Zuloaga. A Basque from the province of Guipúzcoa, Ignacio Zuloaga y Zanora, worked independent of art schools and teachers, adhering to the traditions of El Greco, Velazquez, and Goya. Thus his extremely original art has its roots in the past glories of Spanish painting. Recogni- tion came to him when his painting Daniel Zuloaga and His Daughters was exhibited in 1899 and acquired for the Luxembourg. The earliest painting by Zuloaga in the A293 collection of the Society is The the ZULOAGA Family of The Family of the Gypsy Bullfighter Gypsy Bullfighter (A293), completed at Sevilla in 1903. Here the artist has triumphed over that most difficult problem, the successful arrangement of a large portrait group. Strongly silhouetted against a dull yellow background, yet forming a harmonious and varied pattern, are the figures of an old woman, the espada Calderón with a child upon his knee, two gypsy girls, and a picador. In their rich costumes, subtle blacks are contrasted with apple green and grass green. Zuloaga has been accused by his countrymen of overemphasizing a side of Spanish life which they prefer to ignore, but if his dwarfs, beggars, and sorcer- esses are to be denied, then the nightmare company which Goya drew and the superb monstrosities of Velazquez must also be censored, for they spring from the same source. The Penitents (A292), painted at Segovia in 1908, although an imaginary scene, is based upon a ceremony which took place during Holy Week in small Castilian villages. Characteristic of the artist at this period are the various tones of green used in the costumes and the strange green light which illumines the carved wooden Christ, the penitents, priest, and women. The Victim of the Fiesta (A2010), Zuloaga's protest against the tragedies of the bullfight, shows an aged picador clad in bufF trousers and green and gold 46 PAINTINGS jacket riding home from the corrida on a white horse, bloodstained and emaci- ated. The melancholy pair are outlined against a dark blue sky swept by sheets of rain while below them the village and the deserted bull ring lie among green hills. In his portraits of espadas, picadors, and dancers, Zuloaga made his subjects the per- sonification of the grace and fire to be found in the Spanish dance and the bullfight. Very dramatic in his Lucienne Breñal as Carmen (A290) with the light centred on the viva- cious face of the singer, who, gathering her Manila shawl and red ruffled skirt about her, turns towards the footlights. In the shadowy background two men are seated at a table with a Talavera jug between them. ^ zuloaga portrait of the artist (A35), which he Lucienne Bréval as Carmen painted in 1909 and later presented to the Society, depicts him with black hair and eyes, wearing a dark cape banded in red and green and a brown hat tilted back from his forehead. In My Cousin Cándida (A291) Zuloaga is again interested in green when he contrasts the shimmering silk of her dress with the duller tones of the back- ground. A black mantilla frames her powdered face, and dull pink roses adorn her dark hair. An exhibition of Zuloaga's work was held at The Hispanic Society of America in 1909 and at the Fine Arts Academy, Buffalo, under the aus- pices of the Society. In this exhibition many characteristic canvases were shown, including The Pilgrim, Sorceresses of San Millân, and Vil- lage Bullfighters. His work was again brought to the United States in 1916 and 1917 under the patronage of Mrs. Lydig. Another exhibition was held in 1925 at the Reinhardt Galleries, New York, which included landscapes, portraits, and nudes, many of them painted in a brighter range of colour than were his earlier works. Two portraits in the collection of the Society belong to this late period; they represent Miguel - zuloaga de Unamuno y Jugo (A 1950) and Lucrezia Bori Lucrezia Bori (A2156). The portrait of the late Rector of Salamanca University was completed at Paris in 1925, and that of the Spanish opera singer in 1930. Zuloaga's landscapes have the same romantic quality as his portraits, and 47 HISPANIC SOCIETY in Albarracín (A2032) he has seized the essential beauty of this Aragonese mountain town with its crumbling pink and gray wails, crooked wooden bal- conies, and church tower dwarfed by a blue sky, dark with rain clouds. Zuloaga, with his rich tonalities, distinctive brushwork, and imaginative temperament, will always remain apart from art currents of the moment, but he is irrevocably linked with those of the past. The Catalan Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa is another strong individ- ualist, who, although he received his art education at Paris and painted there many scenes of night life, has little in common with the French schools. A colour- ist of rare ability, he was naturally attracted to Valencia where he depicted the gorgeous peasant costumes in Girls of Liria, Peasants of Gandía, and Girls of Burriana (A295). The latter canvas, in the collection of the Society, pictures three girls wearing the gilded combs, flowered skirts, and gold and white ker- chiefs of Valencian fiesta days. Beside them is a gray-blue horse in trappings of magenta wool. The sky which forms the background is deep blue. No painter interprets the Spanish gypsies better than Anglada, and their grace of line and sinuous beauty ap- pear in Gypsy Dance and Gypsies Walking. His posterlike girls from Granada, Malaga, or Sevilla are less authentic, and in his portraits the pattern of a shawl or the textile on a couch are of paramount interest to him. Anglada's strong feeling for A29S lineal rhythm is especially evident in ANGLADA his Mallorcan landscapes where an- Girls of Burriana cient olive trees or the pines of Cape Tormentor are twisted into intricate patterns of light and shade. In the Tango de la Corona gypsy dancers borrow the grace of the white birches swaying above them. Three young artists who had studied together at Rome exhibited at Madrid in 1904 paintings on literary subjects. They were Eduardo Chicharro y Agüera, Manuel Benedito Vives, and Fernando Alvarez de Sotomayor y Zaragoza. Later all three devoted themselves to regional painting and to portrait work, becoming leaders in their profession. Chicharro, a very definite personality, whose interest is in colour and the study of unusual light efl^ects, is best known for his Oriental subjects and his pictures of Castilian and Greek peasants. His Day of the Fiesta, Lagartera (A2039) is a staccato colour note in which doll-like little peasant girls in full, stiff skirts and tight waists appear as unreal as the tinsel flowers which they wear. Red beads, gold necklaces, and heavy earrings lend an air of barbaric splendour to their appearance. Benedito, although a Valencian, has not confined himself to his native re- 48 PAINTINGS gion, and his peasants, whether from Brittany, Holland, or Spain, have a univer- sal air of sobriety and self-respect. Those of Salvatierra de Tormes (Salamanca) are gathered together in the dusk of their church in The Sermon (A2119) where a dim light illumines the women's faces framed in black mantillas lined with white silk. Benedito's palette has gained new tonalities, his brush strokes greater freedom since this early work was painted, and his studies of gypsies, dancers, and Valencian and Andalusian girls, such as Nature (A2118), are vi- brant with colour. As a portraitist he is represented in the collection of the Society by an unfinished study (A2117) of General Weyler of Cuban war fame. His aristocratic portraits inspired by the English school of Gainsborough's time are especially distinguished. Alvarez de Sotomayor y Zaragoza was born in Galicia, and the peasants of that region are his favourite theme. He repre- sents them in one of his most ambitious canvases. The Galician Dance (A1719), gathered beneath a chestnut tree watching two couples dance the muiñeira to the music of the gaita, cymbals, and drum. Flecked with sunshine, the red, orange, brown, and white of their peasant cos- tumes are seen against the cool background of fields and sky. Very typical of the artist is Young Galician Girl (A2038), the melancholy figure of a peasant in scarlet-flowered kerchief and black wool shawl who stands beneath the gray arcades of a village street. Sotomayor's portrait (A2136) of the seven- teenth Duke of Alba was presented by the Duke to the President for the Hispanic Society. The in- fluence of the eighteenth-century English school A2136 SOTOMAYOR is very evident in this superb portrait. The The Seventeenth Duke of Alba Duke stands at the top of a flight of stairs be- neath a dark archway, a tall figure in the white mantle of the Order of Gala- trava and the red and white uniform of the Real Maestranza of Sevilla. In the distance the sun shines on the brown walls of his castle at Coca. José Pinazo Martinez was to his native Valencia what Sotomayor is to Galicia, but his province presented him with sunshine and smiling faces, cos- tumes of delicate colours, abundant fruit and flowers; all are well portrayed in Floreal and Richness of Life. From this land of orange groves and lemon trees come the children who are the heroines of such fairy stories in paint as The Princess with the Bare Feet, Sonatina, The Shepherdess of Romance, and the Story of the Lemon Tree. Sometimes his daughters were his models, especially Maria Luisa, the child with long yellow braids and brown eyes in the portrait (A158) in the collection. The artist's own portrait (A 160), which he painted in New York in 1920, and those of Doña Alice de Riaño (Al61) and Don Juan 49 HISPANIC SOCIETY Riaño y Gayangos (A57), the ex-Ambassador of Spain to the United States, are all in the collection of The Hispanic Society of America. Nosotros (Al718), completed in 1930, is stylized in Pinazo's new manner, a change in technique which he used just before his death in 1933. Painted in delicate colours with crisp outlines the picture has an almost classic purity. The group of Valencians in regional costume are in reality the family of the artist: Pinazo in the pink cloak lined with blue and tall gray hat of a Valencian mayor and his wife in peasant costume with a gilt comb in her hair. With them are their daughters, the blonde Maria Luisa in a blue silk dress, and the dark-haired Maria Teresa in pink bodice and yellow skirt. Beyond the pink walls of the loggia a bridge crosses the River Turia. A1718 Like the Valencians, the Basques have PINAZO Nosotros many painters, among them the two brothers Ramón and Valentin de Zubiaurre y Aguirrezabal. Deep blue and clear yellow are often found on the palette of Ramón, and these are the colours which he has used in painting his own portrait (A2134) and that of his brother (A2135) in the collection of the Society. Both artists are clad in smocks like those worn by the Basque fishermen who are so often their models in such paintings as Sailors of Ondârroa and Shanii-Andia, the Fearless. The work of José Maria López Mezquita of Granada, a portraitist and regional painter, is well represented in the collection of the Society by thirty-two portraits and twenty-three regional subjects. The por- traits include those of certain ex-presidents of South America and such notable persons as Miguel Primo de Rivera, the late Spanish die- tator. Among the Spanish men of letters are the Alvarez Quintero brothers, Asin Palacios, Cejador y Frauca, and Palacio Valdés. For his paintings of Avila, López Mezquita has used a subdued range of colour with the exception of Women of Avila (A 1952), in which the rich scarlet of the peasant's skirt, drawn over her head as a protection against the rain, LOPEZ MEZQUITA Gabriela Mistral contrasts admirably with the gray background. He has painted the date-gatherers in the palm groves of Elche and the streets of the town deserted save for the figures of black-clad peasants or crowded with people bearing palm branches. Also from 50 PAINTINGS Valencia are the peasants of Torrente, Burjasot, and Jijona, and from Málaga come the fish seller and the fishermen with their gayly painted boats. Murcian Types (A3057) depicts a street market thronged with peasants, the men in white zaragüelles and shirts, waistcoats, and black conical hats, and the women wearing flowered skirts and shawls and in their hair combs and white flowers. The artist gathered the material for five of the paintings in the Alpujarras. To this group belong the two shepherds seen against a range of purple mountains, a saddler's shop at Lanjarón, old women of Timar, and a girl of Baza in gay peasant costume. In Traveling in the Alpujarra, Lanjarón (A3024) the mules stand patiently in the square, loaded with coverlets, pillows, and mule chairs (Jamugas), waiting for the women to mount and begin their journey over the mountain roads. An interesting contrast to the regional paintings of López Mezquita are those of the Catalan artist Miguel Viladrich Vilá. A room in the museum is dedicated to Viladrich and contains thirty-four paintings including portraits, peasant subjects, and still life. Presented here is an almost complete picture of the little Aragonese town of Fraga. The girl water-carriers balance tall jars on their heads while behind them through an archway may be seen the green waters of the Cinca. Opposite stand three girls beneath the famous fig trees, clad in their favourite blue and lavender cotton prints and bright shawls, their hair twisted into door-knocker headdresses. In the next painting old women and young girls are busy spinning, accompanied by the wife of the artist dressed as a fragatina and seated at the left. On the terrace of the artist's studio, high above Fraga in the Castle of Urganda the Un- known, he has posed Salvadora Cariño in The Girl with the Cocli (A 1987) so that a view of the town with the church spire of San Pedro may be seen behind her small figure. The daughter of his gardener is the little girl in the crimson shawl who walks by the river with folded arms and a water jar on her head, and the child clasping a basket is the mason's daughter. From Almatret come the two Catalans in velvet suits and pur- pie caps and the woman in red skirt and dark shawl. The little shepherd, the silversmith, the monk, and the nun are but a few of the many My Funeral interesting figures represented in these paintings. Like a youth of the Renaissance is the artist (A 1863) at twenty-one, his A1983 VILADRICH 51 HISPANIC SOCIETY long brown hair framed with a purple hat and a gold chain about his neck. Portraits of his friends, the heir Curo (A 1862) and the monk Juan Vilas (A 1861), have the simplicity and vigour of primitive panels, and the same qualities are found, tinged with irony, in his triptych on wood. My Funeral (A 1983). Here, a flower-crowned skeleton rises above the decapitated head of the young art- ist while his friends and enemies grieve or smile at his untimely end. Reminis- cent of some fifteenth-century master is the landscape background with stiff green trees and the brown ruins of a monastery outlined against dark blue hills. Paintings by American artists on Spanish subjects have been received at various times by the Society. It is especially appropriate that there should be included in the collection the work of Sargent, an American painter to whom Velazquez was an inspiration. Sargent had visited Spain and returned with paintings and water colours note- worthy for their spontaneity and charm. El Jaleo at Boston and The Spanish Dance (A 152) in the Society's collection show that the portrait painter of aristocracy could interpret with fire and imagination the spirit of the Spanish people. His copy of Don Antonio the Englishman (A 1960) is a splendid tribute to one of Velazquez's master- pieces in the Prado. SARGENT Among the most brilliantly handled land- The Spanish Dance scapes in the collection are those of Childe Hassam representing Toledo, Sevilla, and Ronda. Ernest Lawson, Max Kuehne, and William J. Potter are three landscapists who found a certain stimulus in Spain, and their oils, rich in colour, heavy with impasto, excellently portray both town and countryside. Many of Lawson's canvases are dedi- cated to Segovia, including his landscape of that city (A 127) in the collec- tion. Kuehne, who was in Spain many times, is represented by thirty-one small oils of Granada, Segovia, and Sepúlveda. Potter's four landscapes depict the luxuriant beauty of the Island of Mallorca. Also in the collection are the sketches of the details of the Pórtico de la Gloría, Santiago Cathe- dral by William Sanger, fourteen water colours of Spain by Florence Robinson, and two of Salamanca and Burgos by Carroll Bill. Orville H. Peets is well represented by his Portuguese subjects and one of the Azores. Pen and pencil drawings in the collection by the noted etcher, Ernest D. Roth, are Gerona, Toledo, Cuenca, and An Old Corner, Segovia. There is also included a water colour. The Cliffs of Cuenca (A823), in delicate tones of gray, green, and brown by 52 PAINTINGS another American etcher, André Smith, which records a trip to Spain in 1921. Illustrators who have shown their interest in Spanish subjects are George Wharton Edwards, Vernon Howe Bailey, and Ernest Clifford Peixotto. Many drawings, a few of them in colour, done by Bailey on his visit to Spain in 1921 are included in the collection. The Society also possesses a large number of draw- ings and water colours by Peixotto, which with but few exceptions illustrate his volumes Through Spain and Portugal, Pacific shores from Panama, and vari- ous travel articles published in Scrihner s magazine. Like Pennell's illustrations for Irving's The Alhamhra, the pen-and-ink sketches of Peixotto by their delicate, lacy outlines and sharp accents of black continue the traditions of the master illustrator, Daniel Urrabieta Vierge. E. D. T. SCULPTURE i i II The art of carving in Spain keeps the record of the many races who made their way across her soil, and the collection of The Hispanic Society of America is a series which represents much of that varied pageant. The recurrent flow of tides from the East, which is so distinctive a quality of Spanish civiliza- tion, began at an early period. In the eighth or seventh century before Christ, if not earlier, when those alert traffickers the Phœnicians came cruising along the southern shores of the Iberian Peninsula in their quest for the Isles of Tin, they found a country rich in silver. They established profitable trading posts, such as Tartessos, the Biblical Tarshish, and Gâdër, modern Cádiz, many of which were carried on for centuries by their kinsmen the Carthaginians after the fall of Tyre in 573 b.c . They left among the inhabitants of that region samples of their handicrafts in exchange for the mineral wealth which they exploited. The most extensive finds of articles from their stock in trade were made by George Bonsor in graves of native people which he excavatedpamhoœng nician ivory tablet Los Alcores, a range of hills along the Guadalquivir. In cases at the Hispanic Society's building may be seen engraved ivory combs and plaques (D500- D718), charred by cremation fires, which give a graphic account of the culture of those hardy seamen. The old Eastern theme of struggling beasts—lions, griffins, bulls—and the appearance of human figures of Egyptian type show the hybrid, imitative character of their art. Besides the engraved pieces there are plaques with circular hollows, probably used as palettes, on which the decora- tion is in low relief, with a pierced border of figures. These ivories were often found in urns of native pottery. From the graves also came imported Punic jewelry, scarabs, and decorated ostrich eggs as well as bronze buckles and fibulae and a few iron objects of local make, the whole, typical of Iron Age cul- ture of the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ. Along the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula the Greeks rivaled the 57 « HISPANIC SOCIETY Phœnicians in establishing colonies. By the sixth century before Christ, Emporion, near modern Ampurias, was founded. Here some of the first coins struck in Spain were issued. This coinage was based on the Greek, particularly the Syracusan; the drachmas with a female head on the obverse and Pegasus on the reverse, as also those with a similar head and a rose from neighbouring Rhode, are good examples of Greek provincial art, although less fine than their models. There are a few specimens in the numismatic collection of the Hispanic Society. Where the Phoenician and Greek civilizations met and mingled, in the present region of Jaén, Murcia, and Alicante, there arose a native art which combined elements from both sources. The stone statues of human-headed animals, such as the Bicha of Balazote and the sphinxes, and of lions and bulls, show how these two cultures played upon the imagination of the Iberian sculptor. At the pass called Despeñaperros in the Sierra Morena, where to-day the railroad from Madrid and Valencia to Sevilla crosses the mountains, there was a road which led between the mines controlled by the Carthaginians and the settlements of the Greeks. Near this road, in a cave by a spring, was a shrine to which local tribes brought offerings of little bronze figures made in their own image, which vary in truth to life from strips of metal with only the feet and heads roughly indicated to fairly accurate representations of men, some of them warriors on foot or on horseback, and of women with conical head coverings and tightly wrapped cloaks. There are in the types and cos- tumes hints of the neighbouring presence of the two eastern Mediterranean races. A few figurines from the lot which Horace Sandars gathered from Despeñaperros he presented to the Hispanic Society. In most of them the human semblance is barely recognizable, but one of finer work is a man clad in a short, belted tunic (D994); another (D995) is sheathed in a long, close-fitting garment. The sanctuary of Cerro de los Santos in Murcia harboured a long array of stone statues of priestesses and devotees with THE LADY OF ELCHE characteristics similar to those of the Replica by Ignacio Pinazo Martinez little bronzes, but the climax in the art of these people is the Lady of Elche, which, as soon as it was found, took its place among the masterpieces of all 58 SCULPTURE time. This splendid head with conical headdress and great jewelry wheels shad- owing a face of haunting, irregular beauty may have formed part of a full- length statue. The costume is that of the Despeñaperros bronzes and the Cerro de los Santos statues, but the jewelry is Phoenician, and the artist must have been trained in the canons of fifth-century Greek sculpture. On the island of Mallorca there was evolved a culture distinct from that of the mainland and most nearly parallel to what flourished in Sardinia, the next stepping-stone in fording the Mediterranean. The Bronze Age civilization of the Mallorcan people who lived in villages surrounded by walls into which were built the watchtowers called talaiots persisted into the Roman period, which began with the conquest of the island in 121 b.c . The talaiots were in the shape of truncated cones or pyramids constructed of massive irregular stones, with a single room in the lower part. Although it is now believed that the finest products of this culture, the large bronze heads of bulls with narrow muzzles, slanting eyes, and lyre-shaped horns found in a sanctuary at Costitx, do not antedate the Roman era, their style harks back to an earlier time. Lesser kindred of these impressive works, which are more in harmony with the date to which they are assigned, are small figures of bulls mounted on tubular sockets and heads of bulls on the tips of horn-shaped tubes finished at the opposite end with a disk. One of these bulls' heads (D943), the lower part of the tube missing, was found at Ca's Concos near Felanitx. The shape of the head, with long muzzle and spreading horns, is like those of the bulls from Costitx, but the modeling of details is more realistic. Also from the Vives Collection is another bull's head (D949), unattached to a tube, which came from near Lluchmayor. The forehead is broad, and the horns are short, but the slanting eyes and summary render- ing of detail give it an archaic appearance. Both Carthaginian and native civilizations of Spain were superseded by that of the invading Romans. The temples and theatres in the great cities of the eastern and bull's head southern coasts were decorated with statues of divinities and of deified emperors; sarcophagi were carved with mythological scenes. Roman sculpture, a style imposed by a conquering race which governed from a distance, was slow to take root and acquire the individ- uality of a native product, the art of the Roman Empire keeping throughout its extent a homogenous character, but it submerged all other styles and tendencies. Local craftsmanship can most frequently be distinguished in less finished copies of more suave imported works. It is only in a few portrait heads of native people that a vigorous and individual style appears. Tarragona, the capital of the nearer province, Mérida in the west, and Itálica near Sevilla, with their extensive re- mains of amphitheatres, theatres, and temples, have been the most fruitful 59 HISPANIC SOCIETY sources of statues of deities, emperors, and magistrates. Images of the gods were chiefly copies of Greek works, as in Italy. From the site of Itálica comes the Society's statuette of Artemis (D201), the head and limbs missing. It is a small figure in the attitude of the Versailles Artemis, showing the divine huntress rap- idly advancing, her short tunic and girt mantle blown back against her body, the carving done with freedom and assurance. Itálica was especially rich in statues of this goddess, since two others in the Sevilla Museum, one possibly an original Greek work, were found there. The source of another small statue, that of Hermes (D202), of which only the torso remains, is also Itálica. It has a parallel in a life-size statue d201 from there in the Sevilla Museum, for although artemis the position is reversed, both once held the infant Dionysos supported on the left arm. The Augustan period is represented in the Society's collection by an un- finished head (D203) to be set on a statue, probably of Livia Drusilla, wife first of Tiberius Claudius Nero and then of the emperor Augustus, who in her old age was scorned by her son Tiberius. The wavy hair parted simply in the middle and crowned with a diadem and knotted woolen fillet makes a harmonious set- ting for the delicately rounded cheeks, the small curving lips, and the brooding eyes. Although the likeness of Livia is not firmly established, this head is sim- ilar to others identified by means of the profile on coins and engraved gems. When emperors of Spanish birth, Trajan and Hadrian, came to rule, the cult of emperor worship and the erection of statues and busts of the imperial family, probably modeled on patterns sent out from Rome, were given a strong impetus in Spain. Someone of the second century a.d. is represented in the bust of a young man with a mass of curly hair (D205), reputedly from Itálica. It has been thought to represent Lucius Aurelius Verus, co-regent with Marcus Aurelius. The influence of that type of male beauty exemplified in Hadrian's deified favourite, Antinoiis, can be seen in the pro- portions of the bust, the regular features, and the faintly melancholy expression. A minor art more closely allied to the daily life of the people than these official statues for public dis- hermes play is that of the bronze statuettes which abound in all Roman centres. Part of the collection which Antonio Vives y Escudero, the distinguished numismatist and archaeologist, gathered together is now owned d202 60 SCULPTURE by the Hispanic Society. Some of these little figures of the gods of the Roman pantheon, of lesser tutelary divinities, and of lifelike animals show the perfec- tion of Italian productions, while others have the cruder technique associated with provincial work. Hardly had the Visigothic invaders from the north become established in Spain and amalgamated with the existing Romanized civilization before a new wave from the East broke over the straits of Gibraltar. For a time the Christian and Muham- madan kingdoms existed independently side by side, until in the crucible of the Reconquest they became fused into one people. Córdoba was the western horn of the Muhammadan crescent which encircled the lower half of the Mediterranean, her caliphs matching in splendour those of Bagdad. Arts and letters at Córdoba reached a degree of cultiva- D203 tion which far outshone the rude frontier life in the ROMAN PORTRAIT HEAD castles of the warrior kings of Burgos and León. Although the Arabs were not given to carving in the round, the decoration and furnishings of their palaces and mosques involved elaborate working of the surface of marble, the modeling of plaster, and the carving of wood and ivory. Their delight was in intricate pat- tern, delicate line, and jewel-like mosaics of colour. The perfection of this art is well illustrated by a carved ivory box (D752) in the collection of The Hispanic Society of America. One of the best of the brilliant group of ivory carvers who worked at Córdoba during the reign of Hakim the Second traced out the sinuous vine stems which intertwine in scrolls and spirals over the cylindrical surface and the eyelet edges and curled tips of the deeply cut leaves which branch from the vines. The sig- nature is that of Halaf, who also signed a box made at the palace-city of Medina Azzahra in the year 966, now in the Monastery of Fitero. Although the pairs of animals and the medallions with scenes of the feast and the hunt which enliven the splendid boxes at Pamplona, Braga, London, and Paris are absent on the Hispanic Society's box, the sensitive modeling of the foliage compensates for the lack of variety. The style is more fluent and the inter- lacings more involved than on the box from Zamora made for Hakim the Second in 964. An inscription around the edge tells in poetical terms of the per- fumes which it was used to hold: "The sight I offer is ROMAN PORTRAIT BUST of the fairest, the firm breast of a delicate maiden. Beauty has invested me with splendid raiment, which makes a display of jewels. I am a receptacle for musk, camphor, and ambergris." 61 HISPANIC SOCIETY SCULPTURE The interlacery of vine stems with stylized leaves which ornamented small objects was carried over to the decoration of marble. Several capitals in the Society's collection show the metamorphoses which classical types underwent when adapted by the Arabs to their architecture. During the period of the Caliphate, the volutes and acanthus leaves of the Ionic and Corinthian styles were often chiseled and em- bellished with subsidiary leaf- work until the original model was almost obscured. The Arab's fondness for flowing water to temper the glaring heat of the Andalusian plains led him to fill his courts with pools and fountains. A square marble basin with an inscrip- tion in letters of eleventh- HISPANO-MORESQUE MARBLE BASIN century style calling down ben- edictions on the possessor (D213), the sides adorned with medallions of pal- mette leafage but the rim now denuded of its inlay of brightly coloured stones, may once have held the solace of cool water in some Andalusian patio. A series of gravestones from the Arab cemetery at Almería are documents dating chiefly from the troubled period of the eleventh and twelfth centuries which followed the downfall of the Caliphate of Córdoba; there are prismatic stones, which were placed lengthwise upon the grave, and headstones, both carved with the name and family of the deceased and verses from the Koran. The elegant Kufic letters occasionally terminating in floriations on some of the inscriptions, often framed in horseshoe arches with palmettes in the spandrels, warrant giving these stones a place in the history of the carver's art. The Muhammadan system of ornament, becoming ever more intricate, reached a final exotic blooming within the red walls of the Alhambra at Granada. Fragments strayed from that fairy-tale palace give no hint of its magic, but a few capitals at the Hispanic Society, such as D215, which are of the same style and period may serve to recall those which support the lacy arches of the Court of the Lions. The conquering Christian hosts themselves in turn fell captive to the refinements which they found in the cities made beautiful by the skilled hands of the Arabs. They were not slow in turning this skill to their own advantage in such wise that tiled wainscoting and doors and ceilings of Arabic joinery made sumptuous the palaces and churches at Toledo and many an Aragonese and Andalusian 63 HISPANIC SOCIETY town. In the Hispanic Society's collection there is a door (D70) made in the fifteenth century which shows what this work was like. Small strips of wood cunningly fitted together form eight-pointed stars, and the small panels between are carved with intertwined palmette forms. As the Christians learned from the Arabs and gradually took over their crafts, they combined the Muhammadan ornamental formulae with whatever Euro- pean style was then prevalent, first with Gothic ogives and plant forms, later with Renaissance motives. Both to the work done by Arabic craftsmen for Christian masters and to the mixture of Muhammadan and Christian ele- ments is given the term mudejar. A door (D71) said to have come from Sevilla belongs to the Andalusian series used to close rooms containing the host. It differs from more purely Arabic works in that the carving, though still of geometrical interlacery and leafwork panels, is done on a solid surface instead of being made up of joinery. Around the edge is a Latin inscription from I Corinthians 11:24 referring to its eucharistie purpose. A third door (D45) in the collection was formerly placed to one side MUDEJAR DOOR of the high altar in the Cathedral at Baeza. All that re- mains of Muhammadan design is a geometrical tracery based on the eight- pointed star, formed of applied mouldings. The interstices are filled with ogival tracery, and the frame is carved with a grapevine springing from a wattle fence. The forte of mudejar carpenters was the mak- ing of wooden ceilings with the rafters crossing in combinations of the favourite star designs and with gilded wooden stalactite clusters hanging from the centres. The beams were often supported on long wooden corbels or carved beam ends projecting from the walls. The famous carpenters of Toledo had, by the fourteenth century, a few standard patterns of Muhammadan ancestry which they used with little variation and which spread to other parts of Spain. In the most common variety they made the end curved and ribbed like the prow of a ship; the rest of the underneath part and the sides were carved with palmettes in vine scrolls which extended in two leafy prongs below the ribbed end. A set of twelve of these corbels (D49-D60) is of this shape. Decorat- ing the ceiling of a hall in the Hispanic Society build- MUDEJAR DOOR ing are three stalactite pendants (D72-D74) from Sevilla such as were used to fill the centres of the stars on a mudejar ceiling. They are made of small rectangu- lar and triangular prisms fitted together, with the ends cut to form rows of cells 64 SCULPTURE like a honeycomb diminishing to a point. Arabic methods lasted longest in the minor arts, but after the Renaissance they are only discernible in a tendency to intricate, flat-surfaced ornament. Sculpture continued to be produced in the Christian centres of Spain through- out the period of the Reconquest, although examples previous to the eleventh century are few. The ivory boxes of the Arabs made such an impression that they were copied by Christian workmen, while at León, where Ferdinand the First held court, and in the Monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla in Logroño, ivory reliquary boxes and crucifixes of a completely individual character, cov- ered with figures and scenes, were carved. This art was cultivated sporadically throughout the twelfth century, and there are even a few pieces which belong to the early thirteenth century, before Gothic models from France had completely superseded Roman- esque traditions. From this period dates an ivory statuette of the Virgin and Child (D754) in the col- lection of the Hispanic Society. Other specimens are so scattered and so diverse in type that it is hard to be sure of the place of origin. The nearest parallel in the same material is a statuette in the Monastery of Mehrerau, Austria, but although the composition and the arrangement of the draperies are similar, the faces are entirely different. The broad proportions and the soft, close-laid folds are those of the late Romanesque schools of southern France, with which both German and Spanish sculpture were closely associated. The scrolled hem of the skirt is often seen in German work, but the figure as a whole and in particular the loose ruffle of the veil brought across the Virgin's throat resemble several stone statues on doorways in the province of Burgos and else- where in the kingdoms of Castilla and León. The treatment of the drapery is also characteristic of Catalan thirteenth-century styles, and the leaf scrolls Thirteenth century with beaded stems beneath the feet of the Virgin are like those on capitals of Catalan cloisters built toward the end of the twelfth century. At the same centres where the ivory carvings were produced the art of sculp- ture on a larger scale began to flourish toward the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century. These centres were either on the pilgrimage routes which led to Santiago de Compostela, where ideas from other countries traveled freely and along which the chisel of the wandering stonecutter left its mark in widely scattered places, or else Benedictine monasteries in close re- lationship with other houses of the order. Sculptors served their apprentice- ships in carving the numerous capitals with beasts, birds, and human figures, even to Biblical scenes, which decorated eleventh-century churches, until on D754 VIRGIN AND CHILD 65 HISPANIC SOCIETY the tympana of San Isidoro at León they rose to the task of representing a complete scene in relief and, as a great innovation, New Testament subjects from the Passion of Christ. The Oriental savour, derived either from Muhammadan Spain or from Byzan- tium, is strongest in the capitals and reliefs of the cloister at Santo Domingo de Silos. The exact dating, whether a little before or some time after 1100, does not affect their formal beauty, rare and strange even in an age of rarities. On the transept door of the Church of San Isidoro, León, and on the Puerta de las Platerías at Santiago de Compostela worked sculptors whose characteristics can also be detected on the south doors of Saint-Sernin at Toulouse and on the Moissac cloister piers. In Aragón, at Jaca, Huesca, and the Monastery of San Juan de la Peña, there is sculpture related to Lombard work. The use of illuminated manuscripts as patterns is demonstrated on the portal of the Monastery of Ripoll in Cataluña, where the scenes are copied from the miniatures of a Bible decorated by monastic scribes. In the latter half of the twelfth century as the use of sculpture increased, it became more complex. The figures, carved less as reliefs, became more life- like and expressive. Instead of lying in flat, calligraphic folds, the draperies, closely gathered, began to fall softly and naturally. The relationship with French sculpture was even more intimate. Capitals of Catalan cloisters carved with Biblical scenes were most like the schools of Toulouse and Provence, the Virgin of Solsona being very similar to work signed by Gilbert at Saint-Etienne, Toulouse. In central Spain the school of Chartres was most admired. The sculp- ture of the western door of the Church of San Vicente, Avila, and the statues of the Cámara Santa, Oviedo, prepare the way for the finest expression of the developed Romanesque style, already half Gothic in spirit, the Pórtico de la Gloria at Santiago de Compostela, which Master Mateo finished in 1188. The art of the wood-carver must often, in foreign countries, represent for Spain the sculpture of the Romanesque period, whose chief glories were the great pages of carv- ing which framed church doors and the long histories unrolled on the sculptured capitals of cloisters. Some minor portals and frag- ments of cloisters have been transported to museums outside Spain, but they give little idea of the intricate, flowing rhythms of the capitals and reliefs at Santo Domingo de Silos, the ordered clarity of the bands of D303 THE PENTECOST histories on the façade at Ripoll, or the Thirteenth century glowing life of the porch at Santiago de Compostela. There is in the collection of the Hispanic Society one fragment in stone which represents the transition between the Romanesque and Gothic styles. It is a relief of the Pentecost (D303) which 66 SCULPTURE once decorated a convent at Daroca, still a mediaeval town of narrow streets and overhanging, timbered balconies, the towered walls climbing the steep sides of a narrow valley on the way between Zaragoza and Valencia. This carving of the Virgin surrounded by the heads of the apostles shows a Romanesque manner perhaps derived from Soria, not far distant, although the Virgin's garments are in the fashion of the Gothic period. In this city and along the basin of the Duero there flourished a peculiar style notable for small plump figures moulded in garments with strongly accented, curving, horizontal folds and for round faces with protruding eyes. Statues of the Virgin and Child and crucifixes were the favourite themes of Spanish wood-carvers, but it was quite usual to have set up in some part of the church a group of carved wooden figures representing the Crucifixion or the Descent from the Cross. There have been found in the low stone churches of the Vail d'Arán, among the Pyrenees of Lérida, groups of the larger scene which go back to the twelfth century. One of the most famous among later works is the Santíssim Misteri at San Juan de las Abadesas, placed in a chapel of the apse in the year 1251. The Hispanic Society of America owns a figure of the Virgin standing at the foot of the Cross (D90) which somewhat resembles, in type of face, the one forming part of the Santíssim Misteri. The gown and the chasu- ble-like mantle fall in the many narrow folds which mark the period of transition from Romanesque to early Gothic sculpture. They have here a straightness and regularity which lead the atten- tion immediately to the face, the forehead bound with a fold of cloth, the veil standing out above it like a halo. The deep-set eyes, widely spaced, and the slightly parted lips have a naturalness and depth of emotion seldom seen in sculpture of this time. Statues of the Virgin and Child have survived in greatest numbers in the mountain regions where the Christian tradition was less interrupted by the invasion of the Arabs, but some of the most famous are also to be found in the cities of the plains, where pious legends often tell of their miraculous rediscovery after the passing of the Mussulman hosts. A statue famed for many miracles would become a shrine often visited, so that pilgrims on the way to Santiago de Compostela might turn aside to worship there. The images of the Virgin and Child found in hermitages and parish churches are frequently the crude products of local artisans or copies of more famous statues, but in them one may trace the diffusion and persistence of the artis- VIRGIN AND CHILD tic currents which produced the great monuments in Thirteenth century stone and may come across works of sincere beauty and individuality. In later years the bounty of their worshipers hid them in heavy embroidered capes 67 HISPANIC SOCIETY MATER DOLOROSA Thirteenth century 68 SCULPTURE and weighted them with jeweled crowns until little of the original can be seen. A small figure of the Virgin and Child (D22) seems to be allied most closely to works in León and Castilla, the nearest parallel being one in the Colegiata de San Isidoro at León. The rigid posi- tion of the seated figure and the faint archaic smile are still Romanesque, and the veil keeps tightly to the outline of the head, but in the crumpled folds about the feet there is a naturalness and a sugges- tion of angularity which indicate that Gothic teach- ings were already beginning to make themselves felt and which imply that the statuette was made in the first half of the thirteenth century. The gold of the garments, with black borders through which the gold appears in Renaissance patterns, is a refurbishment of the sixteenth century. The little mountain churches of the Catalan and Aragonese Pyrenees keep a long series of Roman- esque statues of the Virgin and Child, all made after one or two patterns, in an archaic style per- sisting through the thirteenth century. Such a figure was placed in the middle of a retablo (A5) painted in 1490 by Pere Espalargucs for the Church of Enviny, a hamlet in the Pyrenees north of Lérida, reached by a road which runs precariously along the bed of the Noguera Pallaresa to Sort and then by a path up into the mountains. The statue is obviously one previously venerated and used to fill the central space of the retablo, although its archaistic character makes it difficult to date. The composition is still completely Romanesque, with the Child seated in the middle of the Virgin's lap and with the folds of the garments smooth and rounded. The Virgin's gown, suggesting a sobrecota, is a thirteenth-century fashion, but the bird trying to escape from the Christ Child's grasp was hardly in use before the fourteenth century. The Gothic style had its first flowering in central Spain, where the cathe- drals of Burgos, León, and Toledo emulated those of Amiens, Rheims, and other cities of the Ile-de-France. At León the sculpture is of the second half of the thirteenth century, with intimations of various sources for the different styles, some from Burgos, some from France, and others without definite ante- cedents. To the latter group belong certain jamb statues of the central door of the west façade which are the product of a local school. A standing statuette of the Virgin and Child (D79) seems to be a later derivation from these statues. The deep, slightly angular folds gathered across the left side to the front of the figure are the point of similarity. The voluted folds of the veil are associated with fourteenth-century work, although there is precedent for them in the work of the sculptor who carved the lintel of the Blessed and the Damned at 69 HISPANIC SOCIETY León. The face of the Virgin is French in type, but the upright carriage and the oval silhouette of the figure are characteristically Spanish. The wood is covered with a sixteenth-century polychromy in which gold predominates. Since the French were the apostles of the Gothic style, it is not surprising to find throughout that era statues which are plainly imported, which conform closely to the style of some ivory of the atelier of Paris, or which copy statues on church portals where foreign workmen were employed. This penetration of French Gothic art is most apparent in the regions along the northern border, where, in the Middle Ages, the boundary line was always changing. Here, there grew up a special iconography of the Virgin and Child as localized as the Pyrenean types of the earlier period. The arrangement of the deep, angular folds varies little from French work of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, but Spanish qualities appear in the position—an adherence to the rigidity of Roman- esque work—and in the greater solemnity of the VIRGIN AND CHILD faces. The characteristics Fourteenth century of the north Spanish group are well illustrated in a statue in the Society's col- lection (D35). Although it lacks the V-shaped cords which usually hold the cloak across the shoulders, it has the stiff veil and the cloak drawn over the elbows and draped in V-shaped folds across the knees. The simplicity of treatment places it fairly early in the series, but the formal precision of the folds indicates a fourteenth-century date. With the fourteenth century the centre of in- terest in sculpture had shifted from central Spain northward and eastward, to Alava, Navarra, and the Kingdom of Aragón. Here the chief efforts of sculptors were expended less on portals than on ornamental details and church furniture: retablos filling the space behind the altar, single statues rest- ing on corbels, and tombs lining the walls of chap- els. The schools of southern France, particularly VIRGIN AND CHILD Languedoc, with their liveliness of movement, their Fourteenth century graceful, complicated folds, their fondness for natu- ralistic plants and animals and merry grotesques were most admired and copied. Round about Lérida there arose a special group of sculptors expert in the 70 SCULPTURE construction of large retablos of alabaster or stone. Jaume de Castalls, employed by King Peter the Fourth of Aragon at Poblet, worked in the Cathedral at Lérida and gave an impetus to this growth. It was also closely connected with Tarragona, where Italian influences were rife, bringing a rhythm of broad curves and smoothly rounded surfaces with little detail. The Church of San Lorenzo at Lérida has a nucleus of retablos of the second half of the fourteenth century. They have central statues of saints sur- rounded by scenes from their legends, framed in delicate tracery. A statue of the Virgin and Child (D280) is quite like that of Saint Ursula in this church, although the Italianate qualities are still more apparent and perhaps assign it to a region nearer Tarragona and the coast. The cloak is drawn over the head and clasped at the breast with a lozenge-shaped brooch; it falls smoothly over the shoulders and in a few simple ver- tical folds about the lower part of the figure. The trefoils of the crown are crocketed in a manner much used by Castalls. The features of the Virgin and Child D280 have a likeness to those created by Pisan and Floren- VIRGIN AND CHILD tine artists such as worked for the Fourteenth Angevins at Naples, century whose influence was strongly felt along the eastern littoral of Spain. The polychromy, clear colours with a powdering of simple geometrical figures drawn in gold and black, is very characteristic of Leridan work. Another field in which the sculptor was often called upon to exercise his skill was the carving of tombs. The effigy, the heraldic ornamentations, and the representation of the funeral cortege with clergy and mourners gave him a chance to show the full range of his powers. The tomb of a count of Urgel from Bellpuig de les Avellanes now in The Metropol- itan Museum of Art is a splendid example, while those built by Peter the Fourth in the Royal Monastery at Poblet were the apogee of the tomb carver's art. A marble urn (D286) in the col- D286 lection of the URN OF Hispanic Society FUNERARY DON JUAN DE ARAGON Fourteenth century is a less pretentious monument, more interesting for its historical associations than for its artistic qualities. It is an example of a common form of tomb—a rectangular urn which was raised on columns in a niche or supported on corbels set into the wall. The sides were 71 HISPANIC SOCIETY carved with the arms and epitaph; the roof-shaped cover bore an effigy, more heraldic decorations, or Gothic foliage. The cover is missing from the urn in the Society's collection, but the front surface is filled with an epitaph, between coats of arms, which reveals that it was the burial place of Don Juan de Aragon, archbishop of Cagliari, who died on the first day of January, 1368. Chronicles make but little mention of this prince, who was an illegitimate son of Peter the Third and Maria Nicolau. He studied at Montpellier and entered the Franciscan order, dying at an advanced age in the Monastery of San Francisco at Barcelona. His urn was placed on corbels carved in the shape of animal heads against a wall of the church, which was destroyed in the uprisings of 1835. The seacoast towns of the Kingdom of Aragón, like the trading cities of the north, were remarkable for their development of civil institutions. Town halls and lonjas formed a centre only secondary to the cathedral square. In these buildings and in the dwellings of the rich and the nobility was developed a dis- tinctive style of architecture. Some of the finest decorative carving was lavished on the doors, the windows, and the courts. Minor monuments of half-civil, half-religious character, embellished by the same stone carvers who worked on churches and public buildings, were tall stone crosses. The focal point of many a village square in the Kingdom of Aragón is such a cross raised on a broad, stepped base, the decoration of tracery and statuettes giving it the appearance of an enlarge- ment of one of the gold or silver processional crosses used in churches. Stone crosses also stand along the roadsides or in churchyards, often protected by a roof supported on four columns, their function £>287 being to mark a CAPITAL OF boundary or to commemorate a A MONUMENTAL CROSS notable event, perhaps a miracle. The sculptor was Fourteenth century lavish in their decoration, although often the coarse texture of the stone allowed no fineness of detail. On one side of the cross was a crucifix, on the other a figure of the Virgin and Child; the arms of the cross were usually floriated and might bear statuettes of the mourning Virgin and Saint John and of the four evangelists. The transition from the cross to the column was accomplished by a large capital corresponding to the knop of a metal-work cross. This was the most elaborately sculptured part, usually arcaded and carved with coats of arms, statuettes of saints and apostles, or scenes from the Passion. The Hispanic Society of America has a capital from such a cross (D287), which came from Zaragoza. Although the carving is summary, it is an echo of fourteenth-century style. Under the pointed, traceried arches are statues of saints and coats of arms. The coat of arms with the bell may be that of Velilla de Ebro, in the province of Zaragoza. In this town there was a famous bell, represented on its coat of arms, which tolled by itself to foretell important events 72 SCULPTURE in the lives of the Kings of Aragon. The other blazon, three bars gemel, has not been identified with that of any town and may well belong to the donor. Spain had a proto-Renaissance in the last years of the fifteenth century, which took the form of a highly coloured Gothic style, comparable to the schools of Tilman Riemenschneider and Veit Stoss in Germany. When the Catholic Kings came to the throne of a united Spain, they fostered the art brought by wandering Flemish and German sculptors. The resultant style which bears their name was a florid Gothic of grandiose character in which the north European fondness for sumptuousness and naturalistic detail was tem- pered, and a mudejar intricacy of ornament and design was added. Foreign and native elements interacted upon each other. The northern carver found that the interwoven stars and polygons of mudejar workmen made pleasant variations in his designs, and the artist trained in the mudejar style discovered that ogival tracery combined with geometrical interlacery. These later groups of sculptors grafted upon the simple struc- tures of early Gothic architec- ture luxuriant patches of orna- ment, massed on lanterns, door- ways, retablos, and tombs. Burgos, where the Colonia fam- ily and Gil de Siloe were at work, Toledo with the Egas dynasty, and Sevilla with the men who were employed at the Cathe- dral were the principal centres of this art. Carved and poly- THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI chrorned wood was peculiarly Late fifteenth or early sixteenth century amenable to this elaborate treatment, and the output of retablos and choir- stalls was tremendous. The wood-carving cities of the Low Countries, Brussels and Antwerp, sent to Spain many samples of their wares, which were freely copied and adapted by Spanish sculptors. Valladolid keeps two of them, and they are common near Burgos and in the Basque Countries. A little group of the Adoration of the Magi (D4) shows close dependence on one of these models. The Virgin's face and the Child's form are Flemish in type, while the three Wise Men are dressed in the fantastically rich garments which the sculptors of the Low Countries loved to portray. The hand of the Spanish sculptor can be discerned in the modification of these characteristics and in the sumptuous polychromy, pre- dominantly red and green with the gold base shining through in delicate all- over patterns and borders of leaf scrolls, and brightening the edges and details. The Hispano-Flemish style had many ramifications in the province of León, where Master Rodrigo was diligently turning out choir-stalls. A statue which came from Cacabelos in the westernmost part of the province represents Saint Martin on horseback, cutting off his cloak for the beggar (D91). It is carved 73 HISPANIC SOCIETY ambitiously in the round; the highest skill of the painter was lavished on the courtier's costume, showing the gleam of gold in minute patterns through the red of the cape and the blue of the full- skirted jacket, and on the quilting and stitch- ing of the saddle and harness. The horse is no very mettlesome steed, but the boyish figure of the saint, the broadly modeled features, and the shock of red-gold curls under the up- turned brim of the hat have the ingenuous charm of the young knights of the ballads. Sevilla had her own colony of Flemish sculptors, their names Hispaniolized into Nufro Sanchez, Master Dancart, and Master Marco. The small, crowded scenes of the retablo mayor of the Cathedral are to the taste of their authors' country of origin, but the piling of row upon row of panels and the less exaggerated types and costumes of the in- SAINT MARTIN dividual statuettes show the modifications in- Late fifteenth or early sixteenth century duced by the Spanish environment. A little figure of the Christ (D27), taken from a relief of the Resurrection, is very like some of the figures in the Sevillian retablo. Both the angular folds of the drapery and the carefully depicted anatomical details show the softening due to Italian Renaissance example. Burgos had been the leader in adopting the art of north- ern Europe. Her great prelate, Alfonso de Cartagena, had set a precedent by inviting architects from Cologne to put the finishing touches to the Cathedral. This family was joined by Gil de Siloe, whose name and origin are still a mystery, but whose art is a combination of the figure sculpture prevailing in the Lower Rhine countries with typically Spanish mudejar plans and decorative elements. Florid Gothic retablos multiplied in the Basque Countries and the two Castillas, occasionally seeking independent inspiration in some imported retablos, but more often re- lying on the Burgos group. German sculptors were almost as active as Flemish throughout the Peninsula. They carved the choir-stalls at Barcelona and the upper part of the main retablo of the Seo at Zaragoza. Their influence, as distinct from that of scale, less CHRIST the Flemish, appears in the use of a larger in Late fifteenth crowded compositions, in the subordination of details to or early sixteenth century the few principal figures, and in lean, rugged faces and stiffly curling hair. A relief of the Adoration of the Magi at Covarrubias near 74 SCULPTURE Burgos corresponds to this type, as does also some of the work from the studio of the Colonia family at Burgos. - A large panel of the Resurrection (D37) among the wood-carvings of the Hispanic Society was probably the central scene of a retablo. The figure of Christ rising above the tomb and the four soldiers grouped around it are Germanic in type, but the placing of secondary scenes among the rocks in the background is a Flemish device. The black and gold colouring and the raised borders of the garments have also a Ger- manic character. The leaf-scroll design in the gild- ing on the sarcophagus shows that this relief is already within the limits of the Renaissance era. Still further advanced is a statue of the Vir- gin and Child (D34). The Virgin is seated, with the nude Child on her lap gazing up into her face. Flemish precedents have determined the shape of the Virgin's face and the Child's body, but the smoothness of the contours and the re- straint of gesture are very Spanish, while in the the resurrection rounded forms and soft- Early sixteenth century r l i ness or the draperies ^ across the knees the new ideas just beginning to seep in from Italy are patent. Toledo had its own colony of north ^^3 European archi- tects and sculptors, centring about Juan Guas from Lyon and the Egas family. They have a strong artistic kinship to the group at Burgos, delighting like them in * S I luxuriant naturalistic foliage alive with frolicking ani- mals and boys. One of the few native pupils of the for- IBK' 9 eign masters whose name has survived was Pablo Ortiz, who carved the tombs of the unfortunate Alvaro de Luna and his wife. These artists were well patronized by M jy- the Catholic Kings and were employed at other places, notably the Monastery of Guadalupe, whence their style radiated through Extremadura. A tomb from Ocaña in the province of Toledo is a product of the Toledan School. This town belonged to the powerful military order of Santiago, and many influential families chose the church of the order, San Pedro, as a burial place. The 034 Cardenas family rested in the Capilla Mayor, while the virgin and child Osor sixteenth ios chose the Chapel of the Sangre de Cristo, which century they built and endowed. After suffering many changes, this church was torn 75 HISPANIC SOCIETY down late in the nineteenth century and the tombs broken up. The fragments which have survived seem to belong to the double tomb of Garcia Osorio and his wife Maria de Perea. The two effigies are in the Vic- toria and Albert Museum, London, while panels with coats of arms, angels with the instruments of the Passion, Virtues, and boys holding shells, which formerly decorated the sides of the tomb, are divided among several museums. These panels as a whole show the characteristics of the Toledan group. The angels and Virtues are slim figures in voluminous, deeply folded robes; they have small, sharp features and long straight hair or bushy curls. The boys have meagre forms and gamin faces. Their lively attitudes, as they play with the shells above their heads, and the ribbons which wind and float around them make delightful pictures. The panels in the col- lection of the Hispanic Society (D307-D311 ), the coat of arms of Maria de Perea and four boys with shells, repeat with variations other panels in The Metropolitan D308 Museum of Art, New York, and the Fitzwilliam Museum, PANEL SUPPOSED TO BE Cambridge, England, with different modeling, the forms FROM THE TOMB OF GARCIA OSORIO being fuller and more rounded. The Italian Renaissance was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by many agents. Valencia, a centre for traffic with Italy, was early made aware of this movement, but it was not till the beginning of the sixteenth century that it penetrated to the inland districts of Spain. Damián Forment carried the new teachings from Valencia to Aragon, and Felipe Vigarny of Troyes brought them to Old Castilla. At almost the same time, Florentine, Genoese, and Neapolitan sculptors and their works began to make their appearance in the Peninsula. For a time their in- fluence showed itself in modifications of Hispano- Flemish types and in the introduction of bits of Renaissance ornament. Two wood-carvings in the collection of the Hispanic Society illustrate this tendency. A relief of the Entombment (D13) is still thoroughly Flemish in the com- position, the costumes, and the faces, except that of Christ, which shows a possible knowledge of the early works of Vigarny. On the front of the sarcophagus is carved an Italianate pattern of an urn flanked by leaf scrolls ending in birds' THE ENTOMBMENT heads. The colours Sixteenth most freely used century are gold, red, and blue. Certainly to be ascribed to an early follower of Vigarny is a group of the Deposition (D14). The sculptor must have been familiar with the relief of the 76 SCULPTURE trasaltar of Burgos Cathedral, the contract signed by Vigarny in 1498, in which the same scene appears. He has drawn upon it for the composition, with its compact massing and emphasis on vertical and horizontal lines, and for the smoothly modeled faces, while the arrangement of the veil over the Magdalene's head is peculiar to the school. The polychromy is chiefly gold with touches of white and with black bands and borders through which the gold shows in leaf-scroll patterns; there are some red linings. The transformation worked by the Renais- sanee can be seen taking place on two tombs in the Hispanic Society Museum. These tombs show a sculptor brought up in the Gothic tradi- tion being converted to the new style. They THE DEPOSITION Sixteenth came from the Monastery of San Francisco in century the town of Cuéllar, a fief of the arrogant lord, Beltran de la Cueva, duke of Alburquerque, who was a favourite of Henry the Fourth of Castilla. This monastery Don Beltran rebuilt for a funeral chapel. A free-standing sarcoph- agus in the middle of the main chapel was dedicated to him and to his first and third wives. In the gospel side of the transept was the tomb of his brother, Gutierre de la Cueva, bishop of Falencia, and in the epistle side that of his second wife, Mencia Enriquez de Toledo, a descendant of the royal house of Castilla, though she was actually buried elsewhere. These two wall tombs must, from their style, have been done after Don Beltran's death in 1492. The tomb of Don Gutierre (D274), who died in 1469, is completely Gothic in plan, keeping the bristling pinnacles and interlacing crocketed mouldings of the florid ogival style which flourished at Burgos and Valladolid, but in the back- grounds are coarse attempts at Renaissance leaf work, and the figure sculpture begins to show a softening of the stiff folds and harsh faces associated with north- ern work. The tomb of Doña Mencia (D275) is entirely in the new manner, rising in three stages, the pilasters and friezes covered with delicate, naturalistic leaf ornament with which are intermingled a few boys, satyrs, and fantastic crea- tions. The nearest parallel to the style of ornament lies in the work of Vasco de la Zarza, who first appears in 1499 as sculptor of one of the statues of the re- tabla mayor at Toledo Cathedral. He also erected a marble tomb in this cathedral, but most of his work, including the tomb of the famous bishop Alfonso Tostado, was done for Avila Cathedral. The figure sculpture of the tombs from Cuéllar seems far from identical with Zarza's, in spite of some general resemblances. The recumbent statues of the Bishop and the Duchess are both in the Gothic tradition of state effigies in elaborately jeweled and embroidered garments, their forms entirely concealed in the heavy folds. The relief of the Deposition in the background of the niche of the Bishop's tomb and the statues at the bases of 77 HISPANIC SOCIETY TOMB OF GUTIERRE DE LA CUEVA Main Section Sixteenth century > the pinnacles are Gothic in conception and in the stiffly broken folds of the drapery, but they have a smoother flow of lines and added gentleness in the faces. The relief in the niche of the Duchess's tomb is more open in composition, with a background of trees, clouds, and flying angels. The virgin saints and Franciscan and Dominican monks in the smaller niches show an increased softness of feature and drapery, rather like the work of Andrea Bregno at Rome. The character of the early Renaissance in Spain, the rdahlo-\{kç. plan, the love of rich, crowded vegetal orna- ment in low relief, and the increasingly modified Goth- icism of the figure sculpture D274 is well illustrated in this EFFIGY OF GUTIERRE DE LA CUEVA later tomb. Two other recumbent tomb statues (D288-D289) belong to the period when 78 SCULPTURE TOMB OF MENCIA ENRIQUEZ DE TOLEDO Main Section Sixteenth century the Renaissance was still only partially victorious. These effigies probably came from the vicinity of Toledo, since they have similarities to the statues of Diego López de Toledo and Maria de Santa Cruz in the Toledo Museum, from the Convent of San Miguel de los Angeles. The Hispanic Society's statues are a little later than those at Toledo, which were probably done about the time of Doña Maria's death in 1504. Not only have the Gothic lacings and tassels of the pillows been replaced by Renaissance leaf motives, but the figures as a whole are definitely in the new fashion. The source of the change can be referred to the ex- ample of Vigarny, who was employed on the retablo of Toledo Cathedral in 1499. The way in which the faces are modeled, with the eyebrows strongly byne marked and the outline of the eyelids and lips Assembled Tomb of Mencia de Toledo clearly defined, shows his teachings, while the type Ennquez 79 HISPANIC SOCIETY of woman's face was in frequent use among his followers. The warrior whose effigy is at the Hispanic Society was a knight of Santiago ; he is shown clad in armour and grasping his sword, his cloak thrown back over his shoulders to . show the device of the order with*'many small breaks, EFFIGY OF A LADY Sixteenth century figure. i • • • outlining it in a manner EFFIGY OF A KNIGHT OF found a few SANTIAGO sculptors, no- Sixteenth century tably Gil Morlanes, father and son, already working there. He soon gathered around him a large group of men, chief among them being Giovanni Moreto, the Florentine, and Gabriel Joly, from Picardy. The churches of Huesca, Jaca, Teruel, and lesser towns owe much of their magnifi- cence to this group of sculptors. They all took the foundations of their style from Forment, a sculptor of real and original genius who combined Gothic picturesqueness of detail with Renaissance breadth of form. His followers, and he himself in later years, abandoned the sturdiness of proportion which he at first favoured, but they kept the draper- ies, like some thin material drawn across the figure in many fine folds. ^ A group representing the Last Supper S (D7) displays the characteristics of the Aragonese School. The figures are gath- ered in a formal grouping; the heads are well proportioned and delicately modeled, and the garments cling to the figures in smooth, curving folds. The general tone of the polychromy is gold, over which are painted other colours, immi r green and salmon- pink being added to the usual red, blue, supper 1 I .. Sixteenth and white. century Another work (D77), a group of Saint Anne with the Virgin beside her and the Child standing on her lap reaching for a bird in His Mother's hand, 80 SCULPTURE may also belong to the School of Aragon, being rather in the manner of Forment's earlier work. The subject is similarly treated in the retablos dedicated to Saint Anne at Jaca and Huesca Cathedrals. The composition is stiff, and the broad drapery folds are still sharp edged, but the plump figure of the Christ Child might have been taken straight from Laurana. The colours are light and gay: pink, white, and blue over gold, which appears in bold leaf patterns. An unusual piece of carving which seems to have some connection with the School of Aragón is a boxwood triptych (D28). Both the main section and the wings are carved like a minia- ture retablo of plateresque architecture, with innumerable tiny statuettes and scenes in very SAINT ANNE, THE VIRGIN. high relief. The subject is the life of Christ, AND THE CHRIST CHILD chiefly scenes of the Passion, though the central Sixteenth century panel is the Tree of Jesse, with the Assumption and the Coronation of the Virgin above. The type of architecture and the manner of depicting the scenes are those of the School of Aragón, especially the work of Gabriel Joly, who collaborated with Forment and carved independently retablos at Roda and Teruel. The figure sculpture, however, shows none of the slim grace of his creations. Microscopic boxwood carvings were mainly a product of the Low Countries or Germany, where rosary beads and miniature taber- nades were intricately carved with openwork tracery and with reliefs in which many of the figures appear in the round, miracles of delicate workmanship. These works were known in Spain, since Charles the Fifth owned one of the most splendid, now in the British Museum, and since other pieces have been purchased there. Some one of the Flemish sculptors who were working with the Aragonese early in the sixteenth century might have been skilled in this special branch of the sculptor's art and might have used his ability to produce a work in Spanish Renaissance style. Or it is not impossible that some native sculptor may have seen one of the Flemish tours de force and have been able to apply the technique to his own style. The fact that a certain type of vargueño which is distinguished by hav- ing the drawers adorned with perforated BOXWOOD TRIPTYCH boxwood medallions is supposed to Sixteenth century have originated in Aragón may be taken as an indication that native sculptors were familiar with the treatment of this material. 81 HISPANIC SOCIETY The popularity of the boxwood portrait medallion and the medal may have been in part responsible for the delight which Spanish architects of the early Renaissance took in placing on façades or in courts, medallions with heads of mythical, historical, or even contemporary personages. The Catholic Kings were often thus honoured, and Charles the Fifth, whose medallic likenesses were so abundant, almost as frequently. He appears in the portrait series on the façade of the Monastery of San Marcos at León, on the gallery of the patio of the Colegio de San Luis which he built at Tortosa, and over the windows of palaces at Palma de Mallorca and the Torre Pallaresa. Three limestone medal- lions (D276-D278) in the Hispanic Society's collection, which once adorned some palace or public building, represent Charles the Fifth, his queen, Isabel of Portugal, and his son, who was to be Philip the Second. Their ages indicate an approximate date between 1535 and 1540. Charles's appearance resembles that on a medal by Hans Reinhart the Elder, dated 1537, and the prince, born in 1527, looks about ten or twelve years old. In that case, the medallion of the Queen would furnish one of the few portraits done during her lifetime, as she died in 1539. It shows her not in the familiar guise of Titian's portrait, but with the same headdress as thaDt i2n7w7hich she is seen on a panel of the ceiling of the Casa de los Tiros, Granada, D276 probably built during the 1540's. D278 Another CHARLES THE FIFTH fine piece of portraiture of the early Renaissance ISABEL is bust OF of PORTUGAL a PRINCE a PHILIP bishop (D298) with deeply furrowed cShiexetkes eanndthaqcueilninteurnyose. The realistic Sixteenth century Sixteenth handling of the jeweled century ornament on the mitre, not yet rising to the exaggerated height reached towards the middle of the century, and the straightforward characterization of the head are in the Gothic tradition. Even if the bust once formed part of a statue representing a saint, the face is that of an individual. A peculiar instance of the intimate relationship between the eastern sea- board of Spain and the Aragonese possessions in southern Italy and Sicily is furnished by the presence in Cataluña and Valencia of many copies of the celebrated Madonna of Trapani in Sicily. Although the original statue is Pisan work of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, most of the copying seems to have been done in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, perhaps emulating a fash- ion set by Laurana and the Gagini in Sicily. Three copies (D282-D284) from 82 SCULPTURE Spain now in the collection of the Hispanic Society are representative of the series. One of them follows the original model quite closely and stands on a base sculptured with the coat of arms of the town of Trapani. Another, with a pretty oval face, seems rather to copy one of the versions popularized by the Gagini family. After the first quarter of the sixteenth century the Spanish Renaissance entered on a new phase, baroque in spirit even as the florid Gothic period had been, but given a new direction probably by the emo- tionalism and the rushing movement of Donatello's later work. Bartolomé Ordóñez and Alonso Berruguete were the two most famous exponents, dragging in their wake many sculptors such as Vigarny and Forment whose beginnings had been quite different. They depicted faces in the grip of violent feelings, figures in strange contortions, and thin draperies swept against the limbs. Juan de Juní, who came from France CHRIST BEARING THE CROSS to León about 1535, developed his own version of the Sixteenth century prevailing mode by using heavy proportions and thick, soft draperies. He en- dowed his personages with forceful characters and strong emotions. A relief of Christ Bearing the Cross (D25) is by some member of the group centring about Juní which worked in the neighbourhood of León. The unusual, forced posture with the arm above the head is that of the Christ of the retablo from Trianos now in the Church of San Lorenzo, Sahagún, the contract for which was signed by Guillén Donzel and Juan de Anges in 1545. The workmanship is different, and since other parts of the Trianos retablo are copied from earlier works, it is likely that both compositions are based on one by Juní, who delighted in such twistings of the human form. After Juni's removal to Valladolid, where the central point of the school became established, his son Isaac and Berruguete's nephew, Inocencio, became his assistants. The School of Valladolid acted upon Burgos to a minor extent. In the choir-stalls for the lay brothers in the Carthusian Monastery of Miraflores, carved by Simón de Bueras in 1558, there is revealed a knowledge of the work of Berruguete and of the heavy draperies and vigorous heads sponsored by SAINT JEROME Juní. A little panel of Saint Jerome as cardinal, Sixteenth century seated in a chair reading (D38), is supposed to have come from the Monastery of Miraflores; though in a quieter mood and simpler manner, it corresponds to the period and school of which Simón de Bueras is, for that vicinity, the best-known artist. It is even closer in point of style to the 83 HISPANIC SOCIETY retablo mayor of Mahamud, in the province of Burgos, the contract for which was signed by Domingo de Amberes in 1573, towards the end of his life, though an attempt has been made to attribute some of the reliefs to Juan Picardo, co-author with Juni of the Burgo de Osma retablo. Juní's system of heavy folds and large forms gradu- ally dominated over Berruguete's lean, nervous figures. When Gaspar Becerra arrived from Rome in 1558, he brought a notion of the classic yet tormented grandeur of Michael Angelo's work which amalgamated well with the style already made popular by Juni. In spite of his great reputation among his contemporaries. Becerra seems to have been little more than an able imitator. His versions of Michael Angelo's statues were immediately copied by a host of men, though the spirit which animated and invigorated these lay figures seems to have emanated from Juni. Esteban Jordán was one of the most industrious imitators of Becerra. The manner of the school is exemplified in a statuette Dii (D29) in the SAINT AUGUSTINE Hispanic Society's collection, a female Sixteenth century figure which perhaps symbolizes a virtue. The large, full features and the headdress show a vague memory of classical statues, while the ample tunic and cloak are draped in thick, soft folds. The style is closest to that of the followers of Jordan at Valladolid. To the same period and general trend, though with lingering traces of the fashions of the earlier part of the century, belong two statuettes representing Saint Augustine and Saint Gregory (D11-D12). The folds are less broadly handled, and the faces are more delicate than is usual. The polychromy of all three is very typical of the whole school. Salmon-pink, olive-green, white, and black are the foundation colours. The gold underneath shows only in an all- over graffito and in the heavy borders, while the chief patterns are bold floral or leaf designs in various colours outlined with contrasting tones. Other sculptors carried the methods of Becerra to the northern provinces of Spain. Pedro López de Gámiz worked at Briviesca, Pedro Arbulo de Marguvete in Logroño, and Juan de Ancheta in Navarra and the Di Basque Countries. Probably from some sculptor SAINT JOHN working in this region come seated figures of Saint Sixteenth century John and Saint Luke (D1-D2) with their symbols, the eagle and the ox. The evangelists were a stock item of retablo decoration, being often placed on the 84 SCULPTURE base. A favourite detail with this northern school, although not confined to it, is the eagle serving as a lectern for Saint John's book. More significant of their relation to the group are the heavy folds of the garments broken into broad surfaces, the long faces and bold features, and the large, stiff curls of hair. The mantles are pale blue with the gold beneath showing in a graffito of fine lines and scroll borders. Side by side with this lux- uriant growth of native art and having its centre in the same town, Valladolid, there flourished a courtly art which failed to influence local sculptors to any great extent and which gradually became adapted to its environment. Pompeo Leoni came to Spain by way of the Low Countries in 1556 as a member of the retinue of Charles the Fifth and remained as a protege of Philip the Second. For some years he carried on the work which his father Leone had begun, making life-size bronze and marble statues and busts of the royal family, casting medals and carving gems in the intervals. He interrupted his work for the sovereign to carve two marble tombs for churchmen, but his energies were soon completely absorbed in the bronze statues for the retallo and tombs at the Escorial. This work took him to Italy and lasted until 1598, the year of King Philip's death. In his last years, Leoni was busy with bronze tomb statues for the Lerma family and with wooden retablos for churches at Madrid and Valladolid, executed by pupils under his direction. His suave, studied art was poles apart from the Berruguete and Juni traditions or from Michael Angelo as interpreted by Becerra. Two marble effigies (D316-D317) in the Hispanic Society's collection have been attributed, very plausibly, to Pompeo Leoni, for though he had a few fol- lowers such as Pedro de la Cuadra at Valladolid, none remotely approached his own level of excellence. The Hispanic Society's statues, which are of Suero de Quiñones and his wife Elvira de Zúñiga, daughter of the second duke of Béjar, came from the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de Nogales in León. The two recumbent figures are clad in court dress enriched with bands of delicate patterning in low relief. The heads and hands are modeled with great care and delicacy; details such as the treatment of the locks of hair and the method of indicating the pupil of the eye are in accord with Leoni's manner. The awkward position of the heads, which results from the absence 85 HISPANIC SOCIETY of pillows, is a gaucherie into which a man who was accustomed to designing only kneeling effigies might easily have fallen. Leoni's work is broken into periods by his seven-year sojourn in Italy, and the time after his return until 1598 must have been almost entirely taken up with the work for the Escorial. The costumes of Don Suero and Doña Elvira are closer to the period before 1582, although a man of the same name, a benefactor of the Monastery of Nogales, died at Valladolid in 1590. A few more wood-carvings in the collection of the Hispanic Society may be dated towards the end of the sixteenth century. Two panels of pop- lar wood, unpainted, represent the Birth of the Virgin (D47) and the Adoration of the Magi (D43). The sobriety of the scenes, the women's bodices, and the way the hair is done confirm the dating. The natural roundness of the baby's form in the Epiphany scene is modeled with par- ticular charm. The other subject lends itself more to genre treatment, with the bathing of the baby and details of household furniture. A statue of the Virgin and Child (D61) is an unusual version of this theme. She is seated in a hip-joint chair. The square face and regular features and the fillets which bind the hair are quite individual, although a similar headdress appears on Juni's Magdalene in the Valladolid Museum. The poly- chromy is of rich colours: dark green with a pattern of gold stars framed in strapwork on the mantle, a red lining, a dull golden robe, and a white veil striped with narrow red and black lines. Here again the simple positions, the serene faces, and the natural fall of the voluminous garment folds are far re- moved from the emotionalism of the early part of the century. A bust of Saint Anne teaching the Virgin to read (D17) is also notable for the polychromy as well as for the grave dignity of the face. On the dark brown cloak there is an intricate pattern of interlacing vines on which the gleam of gold is tempered by narrow lines of brown; the Virgin's vermilion gown has a simple imbricate design. A relic was contained in the oval opening in the breast. Such reliquaries, often of silver, became popular at Cologne in the fourteenth century, where they were made to contain relics of Saint Ursula and her martyred companions. 86 SCULPTURE There are many in Spain; for instance, the elaborate busts of carved and poly- chromed wood of Flemish style in the Church of el Saltador, Ubeda, which hold the skulls of four virgin saints. Traces of Flemish influence remain in a less ornate bust (D3) in the So- ciety's collection, made during the first half of the six- teenth century. These reliquary busts remained in favour during the Renaissance. Valladolid continued to foster sculptors during the early seventeenth century. Out of the traditions of Juni and Becerra there arose a new, more completely national plastic ideal, given substance in the work of Gregorio Fernandez. His early productions are still much like those of Juni and Jordan, but he tended more and more towards a new vein of naturalism, gradually freeing himself completely from the Italian- ate aesthetic conventions of the sixteenth century. Joyful or sorrowing faces and dramatic attitudes were drawn as much as possible from real life, and the vest- D44 ments and habits fell as stiffly as the heavy brocades A SAINT and coarse fabrics from which the actual garments Seventeenth century were made. In his striving for reality, this sculptor began the disastrous habit of using on his statues eyelashes of real hair and eyes made of crystal. To this realism of Fernandez's work there was added a baroque quality inherent in the cascades of angular folds into which the ends of the draperies sometimes break. This one sculptor held domination over both Casti- lias, the Basque Countries, Galicia, and Extremadura during the first part of the seventeenth century. Several statues in the collection of the Hispanic Society are representative of this school of sculpture. A figure of a saint (D44), possibly Anthony Abbot, is clothed in a brown habit with the cowl drawn over the head and a cope over the shoulders. Both gar- ments are estofado with interlacing leaf patterns in gold. The unstudied pose and the uncompromis- ing, flat surfaces of the cope show the influence of Fernández, although the face is dull and inexpres- sive. A statue of Saint Francis of Assisi (D65) clad in a dark gray habit brocaded with gold outlined in white and black is in the general tradition of the D66~ Castilian School. A decadence is noticeable in the MATER DOLOROSA perfunctory fashioning of the folds and in the stand- Seventeenth century ardized carving of the head. A Mater Dolorosa (D66) is more baroque in treat- ment. The figure has a decided countercurve, and the ends of the cloak flow 87 HISPANIC SOCIETY away from the form. The rich polychromy is of many-hued flowers on back- , grounds of pale blue and lavender over the usual gold base. Works with the directness of Fernandez's con- ceptions somewhat blunted, verging more on the baroque in character, are companion statues of a bishop and nun saint (D40-D41). The figures are poised with a graceful swing caused by the bend of the knee and the turn of the head and shoulders. The draperies are given greater ease and freedom by shallow breaks in the surface and by the closely gathered rochets. Although the faces are not so doll-like as was the fashion later, they have regular features and sweet expressions. It is hard to identify saints when their attributes are missing, but these two might be Fulgentius, bishop of Sevilla, and his sister, the Abbess Florentina, patrons of D40 Plasència. a bishop saint When the court was Seventeenth century 1 c t7 11 moved 1 !• i rrom Valladoha to Madrid, the latter city drew to itself artists from all the different circles. The Italian sculptors who worked for the royal family were there, Valladolid exerted a strong influence, and Alonso Cano repre- sented the Andalusian trend. Two kneeling mortuary effigies (D75- D76) of wood, painted white to imitate marble, seem to show derivations effigy of a lady r .1 C 1 1 £ Seventeenth century rrom the behoof ot Valladolid. The lady wears the same costume as Velazquez's Maids of Honour, that is, of the period from 1650 to 1660. Both effigies resemble those of Juan de Solórzano Pereira, who died in 1655, and of his wife, Clara Paniagua, in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional, which are ascribed to Sebastián de Herrera Barnuevo. This sculptor, who lived from 1614 to 1671, was a follower of Alonso Cano, but little remains of his varied activities as architect, EFFIGY OF A MAN painter, and sculptor by which to judge of his qual- Seventeenth century Other marble effigies in the Madrid Museum similar to those of Solórzano Pereira and his wife are given to Herrera Barnuevo's SCULPTURE pupil, Eugenio Guerra, who was also active in the mid-seventeenth century. A relief (D46) in the collection of the Hispanic Society which is of both historical and artistic importance was probably carved at Madrid some time towards the end of the seventeenth century. It depicts the events which took place when the coffin of the Blessed Simón de Rojas was opened in 1629 as part of the investigation prior to his beatification. Fray Simón, who had been a noted member of the Trinitarian Order, tutor to Philip the Fourth's children, and confessor to the Queen, died in 1624 with a great reputation for good works and saintliness. The scene on the panel is the interior of the Monastery of the Holy Trinity at Madrid. In the foreground, placed on a cloth of honour, is the incorrupt body of the venerable monk, covered with the white butter- flies which flew out when the casket was opened. Around the body of Father Simón are gathered noblemen and clerics, some of them identifiable from con- temporary accounts of the ceremony. Cardinal Gabriel de Trejo y Paniagua is kneeling to kiss the feet, and beside him stands the famous poet and preacher, Hortensio Félix Paravicino, looking like the Greco portrait of him. The costumes are contemporary with the event, but the style of carving and the architecture of the Virgin's shrine in the background suggest a somewhat later date. There was a painting of this subject in Belgium which differed from the relief only in a few details. Contemporaneously with the Castilian movement, there was arising in Andalucía a new group of sculptors, who found a leader in the famous Juan Martinez Montañés. The men of the latter part of the sixteenth century, Vázquez the Younger, Núñez Delgado, and Lorenzo Meléndez, perhaps in imita- tion of Torrigiani, had already turned towards the voluptuousness of full, softly rounded figures and loosely gathered draperies. Martinez Montañés worked out a harmony of form unequaled in richness and imbued with a certain brood- ing sweetness. His career offers a curious parallel to that of Fernández. Both 89 HISPANIC SOCIETY began in thorough accord with their surroundings, obedient to the teachings of older sculptors, and gradually, without the intervention of any outside stimulus, reached a personal expression. Both were the acknowledged masters of their spheres and left their stamp on several succeeding generations. Montañés shaped the early destinies of Alonso Cano, who later, upon his removal to Madrid and Granada, developed a more fragile, refined style, with a gentleness strangely dis- tilled from so violent and tormented a person- ality. Pedro de Mena y Medrano, starting from Cano, went still farther in the direction of femi- HEAD OF nine delicacy, producing innumerable graceful SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST figures, pretty even in the Seventeenth century depths of woe. Despite this touch of sentimentality they are often en- dowed with real humanity and inspired by sincere fervour. The next great figure at Sevilla after the death of Montañés was Pedro Roldan. His was a robust temperament, fond of large groupings of monumental figures. It may have been the influence of Cano which led him to model heads with a certain impressionistic technique which made them very effective. The boldly planned but delicately handled features and the soft massing of the hair give them a fine artistic quality. Roldan's style appears in two terra cotta reliefs (D823-D824) in the Hispanic Society's collection. They represent the severed heads of Saint John the Baptist and Saint Paul displayed on gilded platters against green cloths. The features are drawn with sharp, clear strokes, and the hair flows away from the heads in vague, smooth masses. These grue- some representations of the heads of martyrs had a great vogue during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Núñez Delgado signed one in 1591 which seems to be the earliest. Martinez MoDn8ta2ñé3s and the sculptors of his time continued the fashion, while Valdés Leal spon- sored the theme in painting. A new crop, with increas- ingly lurid devices to heighten the melodramatic effect, sprang up in Castilla under the leadership of Juan Alonso Villabrille y Ron. Others of eighteenth-century date are at Granada and Zaragoza. A group of sculptors following immediately after Roldan at Sevilla was dominated by his style. To one of these men may be ascribed a jointed statuette (D3I) made to be clothed with real garments, the head, hands, and feet carefully finished. It probably represents Simon of Cyrene helping to carry Christ's cross. The vigorous 90 SCULPTURE modeling of the face and the tumbled locks of hair are done in the manner of Roldán's group. Roldán's daughter Luisa was his assistant and also received commissions on her own account. She brought to her work an atmosphere of daintiness well suited to the small, detailed works which are most typical of her output. At Madrid, where she went in 1692, she made a name for herself and received the title of escultora de cámara to Charles the Second. Small groups in polychromed terra cotta on religious subjects were among her most popular creations. These little figures in flowering landscapes, ministered to by angels and cherubs and surrounded by friendly animals, are con- ceived in a spirit of gentle sentiment and carried out with refinement and charm. Three of these groups in the Hispanic Society's museum are The Mystical Mar- riage of Saint Catherine (D820), The Re- pose in Egypt (D821), and The Death of Saint Mary Magdalene (D822). The first of them bears the signature of the artist, but the other two, less fine, may be £)820 LUISA ROLDAN copies, since there is a signed version of The Mystical Marriage of Saint Catherine the second in the collection of the Count of Güell at Barcelona. The themes and treatment are similar to those of paint- ings by the artists of the School of Madrid. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Spanish sculpture became completely identified with the exaggerated baroque style of architecture to which Churriguera gave his name. Twisted forms and wind-blown draperies carried out the broken curves, the opposed angles, and the profuse ornamenta- tion of façades, interiors, and retablos. The beginnings of this transformation are discernible in two companion reliefs (D67-D68), one representing the An- nunciation, the other, an incident in the life of a saint. Amidst the realistic details of the two interior settings, the personages move with unrestrained animation, and the draperies end in trains of elaborately curved and doubled folds. The rounded faces and pleasant expressions suggest an Andalusian origin. The colouring is painted on a gold foundation, and the white, red, and blue garments are covered with brilliant flowers. The prevailing mode, though still baroque, underwent certain modifications in the eighteenth century. Under the influence of French sculptors brought by Philip the Fifth to decorate the gardens of Aranjuez and La Granja, sculpture became lighter and more graceful. The founding of the Academy of San Fernando about the middle of the century favoured the grandiloquent treat- ment of allegoric and historical subjects and began the neoclàssic movement, which imposed its canons well into the nineteenth century. At the same time there were some native sculptors who carried on older traditions. The one who 91 HISPANIC SOCIETY is best known, Francisco Salzillo, was the son of a Neapolitan sculptor who had settled at Murcia. He had an atelier in which his whole family was engaged in the production of religious statues and groups for Holy Week processions. His personal contribution was a return to the observation of real life, the individual character of some heads being closely copied after the model. Contemporary with the work of Salzillo, no doubt, is a statuette (D30) in the collection of the Hispanic Society, which once formed part of a Crucifixion group. It is one of the figures standing at the foot of the cross and, in spite of its feminine appearance, may represent Saint John rather than the Magdalene, who is usually kneeling. The face is sensitively modeled, and the soft draperies emphasize the graceful bend of the figure. The baroque style was well received in Portugal, where in the eighteenth century it led to a Renaissance of the art of sculpture. Polychromed wood was also a D30 favourite medium there, and the colouring was even statuette from • • j t 1. 4. 4.4. u* l u a crucifixion group "^0^^ vivid. 1 WO statuettes which may have come Eighteenth century from the Concento dos Lóyos at Coimbra show the richness of this work. One of them is a saint (D6) standing on a mass of clouds, a cloak draped in broad, trailing folds across his form. The other is a Virgin and Child (DIO). These dainty figurines have an elegant bearing and deli- cate, sweet faces. The lavender, yellow, blue, and ver- milion garments are encrusted with gold scrollwork and covered with gay flowers, including roses and carnations painted in natural colours. A minor art which flourished in Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has an added inter- est from its association with the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. The hosts who visited this famous shrine of the apostle James found under the walls of the Cathe- dral little shops where they might purchase mementos of their journey in the form of small objects made of jet. There were shells—the badge of the pilgrimage—amulets, I and images of Saint James the Great. The pilgrim car- 1 ried these emblems back to his home, sewed on his hat a saint or cloak, unless they were unusually large, along with , , Eighteenth century miniature crossed pilgrims f 1 1 staves of bone and real cockle shells from the shore at Padrón, where Saint James had landed in Spain. The carving of jet was a monopoly under the jurisdiction of the church, and 92 SCULPTURE the jet carvers of Santiago were formed into a guild in the fifteenth century. The art reached its highest development in the sixteenth century and suffered a decline as the day of pilgrimages passed. The statuettes of Saint James show him barefooted in pilgrim's garb— a tunic, a cape, and a broad-brimmed hat with the cockle- shell emblem. He carries staff, scrip, and gourd, sometimes a rosary, and the book of the Gospels which is his apostolic attribute. The pilgrims who are often depicted kneeling at his feet were probably not carved to order to represent actual people but made up in several standard variations. They are usually two, a bearded man and a woman in a close-fitting wimple, both clad in the pilgrim's habit, but either may appear alone. The manner of carving of these figures varies somewhat in accord with the progress of sculptural styles. A few of the earliest in type have been assigned to the fifteenth century. The saint is dressed in short tunic and cape, and the modeling is harsh and prim- itive. The finest specimens date from the early part of the sixteenth century, and one (D80I) in the Hispanic Society's SAINT JAMES collection is among the best of the series, equaled only THE GREAT by one or two in the magnificent collection of the Instituto Sixteenth century de Valencia de Don Juan, at Madrid. The saint's cloak, sprinkled with gold cruciform medallions, is kept close to the outline of the figure and is draped across the front in easy folds. The scrip is hung from the staff held in the left hand, and in the other hand is a closed book in a heavy leather binding. The brim of the hat is turned up and decorated with a shell in relief and with crossed staves drawn in gold. Saint James's head is modeled with un- usual truth and subtlety. The nose is long and delicate, the eyes piercingly keen beneath broad brows. The smooth waves of hair, beard, and mustache end in elegant curls. The pilgrim kneeling by the apostle's feet, at the left, is on a much smaller scale. His up- turned face wears an expression of devotion and sup- plication. Another statuette of Saint James (D800) is of slightly later date and less finished workmanship. The two pilgrims kneeling beside the saint are both bearded men. In the seventeenth century the most popular rôle of the patron saint was that of the Moor Slayer, and in this guise he figures on a medallion, with uplifted sword, riding his horse against the enemies of the Faith, as he is related to have appeared at the Battle of Clavijo. Sixteenth century The jet objects most frequently encountered, their fabrication not limited to Santiago, areDa8m0u1lets against the evil eye, the material itself being a strong D8Ò0 SAINT JAMES THE GREAT 93 HISPANIC SOCIETY antidote. They are in the ancient form of a closed hand with the thumb held between the index and middle fingers, an attitude of defiance and insult. . On account of the which ^ shape they took they became known as higas, or fig hands. Such amulets often ap- pear in portraits of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, hung around the necks or waists of baby infantes. There are several of these amulets in the Hispanic Society's series, some of them so stylized that the shape of the hand is hardly recognizable and given further potency by designs of a heart or crescent moon. On one of them (D803), the hands are more realistic; they are set in foliage below a half figure of Saint Anthony of Padua. Many other objects, rosaries, paxes, and secular things such as necklaces and po- manders were made of jet. The Hispanic Society's col- lection includes a perfume bottle D803 (D810) in the shape JET AMULET of a cone. Seventeenth century An art little cultivated in Spain after the Roman- esque era was that of ivory carving. Her churches and religious houses contain some statues of Christ, the Virgin, and saints which date from the seventeenth or perhaps, in some cases, the sixteenth century, but they are mostly from the Portuguese and Spanish colonies, especially those of the East. Pieces from Goa in India combine Western religious iconography with a peculiar technique of crude forms and harsh outlines. One of the most widely dispersed crea- tions, called a "Good Shepherd rockery", represents the Christ Child as a shepherd asleep on a mound of rocks from which springs a fountain. The distinguishing features of the carving are the sharp, straight edges of the drapery folds, the lace-patterned borders, and the coarse leaves around the bases. Another group of ivories differs from the Goan lot in technique. The folds are shallow and rounded, keeping close to the outline of the form. There are no carved decorations on the borders, and the heads are more realistically modeled. The place of origin of these statuettes is still obscure. They are supposed to have come from the Philippine Islands, which were conquered by the Spaniards late in the six- teenth century. The presence in the Islands of many Chinese, a people expert in the carving of ivory, lends weight to the theory. The immediate source of many of these figures is Mexico, which D7S3 was a station on one of the VIRGIN AND CHILD routes from the Philippines to Spain. Once or twice each Seventeenth century year there was a ship from Manila, the nao de Acapulco, and the treasures brought by it might be reshipped to Spain. It is possible that this series of 94 SCULPTURE works was actually carved in Mexico, but the style does not coincide with Mexican sculpture in other materials. A statuette of the Virgin and Child (D753) seems to be a definite link with the Far East, as it closely resembles a Chinese seventeenth-century statuette of Kwan Yin in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The Child stands in the same posture, the shape of the face and the features have a certain likeness, and the folds are similarly draped. A figure of the kneeling Virgin (D751) probably formed part of a Nativity group. The garments are richly patterned with gold scrollwork and flowers outlined in reddish brown. More characteristic of the group as a whole is a statuette of Saint Joseph leading the Christ Child by the hand (D750). Many variants of the figure of Saint Joseph may be seen in museums, some of them obtained in Mexico. The knot of hair above the forehead is characteristic of them all and may revert to Martinez Montañés at SAINT JOSEPH AND THE Sevilla, in whose work this peculiarity first appeared. CHRIST CHILD The polychromy is of coarse foliage in gold, brown, Seventeenth century green, and red. In the collection of the Hispanic Society the work of one sculptor must stand for the achievements of the nineteenth and what has passed of the twentieth century. But the versatile, prolific career of this one man, Mariano Benlliure y Gil, embodies many of the best qualities of his generation. After the cold academicism, the empty pretense of the historical machines of the early part of the nineteenth century, the naturalness and vigour of his creations came with rejuvenating freshness. He soon left behind him the more trivial anecdotal and sentimental aspects of his youth- ful compositions and began to reveal some of the traditional tendencies of Spanish sculpture inherent in his own artistic character. Trained like the artists of the Italian Renaissance in many branches of the arts—painting, goldsmith- ing, and ceramics—Benlliure brings to his work in marble and bronze the mastery gained from those different media. He has carried his feeling for colour even into his stupendous array of monuments. He is fond of combining marble D962 of light and MARIANO BENLLIURE and bronze, and the intricate play Joaquin Sorolla shade on the deeply cut draperies and on the figures in rapid motion adds to the drama and gives a further colouristic effect. Early in his career Benlliure began the series of portraits of fair ladies and 95 HISPANIC SOCIETY famous men which in themselves constitute a history of his time. The bust of his teacher, the painter Domingo y Marques, which he modeled at Rome in 1885, is still impressive in its realism, vigour, and colourful modeling. The Hispanic Society's series of sculptured portraits by Benlliure begins with the plaque to Ramón y Cajal (D963) done in 1908; the head, in profile, is drawn with easy, free strokes. Benlliure also recorded his interpretation of the great scientist in a statue erected at Zaragoza University in 1925. The Hispanic Society owns a bronze bust of Guillermo Joaquín de Osma y Scull (D961), founder of the Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan, which was done by Benlliure in 1918. The bust of Sorolla (D1007) is a loving presentation of an intimate friend; the head is poised with assurance, the difficult bulk of the coat and hat made to con- MARIANO BENLLIURE tribute to the Goya harmony of the composition. There is a marble replica in the museum at Valencia, and another copy in bronze has been set up as a monument to the painter on the beach of Malvarrosa. A work of even greater verve is the evocation of the painter in the bust modeled for the Casa de Sorolla in 1932 as a tribute of the Hispanic Society. The Society possesses a copy of it (D962) as well as the small scale model (D1006) cast in bronze. Four bronze busts done in 1929 and 1930 portray the dictator Primo de Rivera, Doctor Gregorio Marañón, the Count of Romanones, and the Marquis of Vega Inclan, as varied in treatment as the characters of the men are diverse. All these busts were signed in the clay by the persons whom they represent. In 1913 Benlliure presented to the Society a study of the head of Goya (D960) in bronze, like that of the monument erected to the painter at Madrid. The rugged, temperamental features provide a good subject for the artist, who has infused into the work some of his admiration for the great Aragonese. In spite of Benlliure's devotion to Goya, the sculptor's genial spirit has never turned towards that great man's bitter exposure of human frailties. Only in his choice of incidents from the bullfight does he dwell on the more sinister aspects of life. Bull- fighting subjects have engaged the attention of the sculptor since his MARIANO youthful BENLLIURE commerce in wax figures, The Wounded Bull when he discovered that the works which found most ready sale were images of saints and bullfighters. One of his first successes at a Madrid exhibition, in 1876, was The Goring of a Picador. 96 SCULPTURE The Garrochista is a brilliantly executed study of an Andalusian horseman. In the Hispanic Society's collection there is a statuette of a bull sinking under the death thrust (D984). This little figure, so realistically and feelingly handled, seems to be a revised version of the one called The Deathblow, which was done by 1901. The sculptor's interest in picturesque types and in vivid action led him to model gypsies and dancers such as the flamenco dancer of 1910, with her voluptuously undulat- ing body and billowing skirt. In later years Benlliure has sought to add the attraction of colour to his genre figures and has had them fired in porcelain. The Hispanic Society possesses A Gypsy (D841), A Maja (D840), and a statu- ette of the singer Maria Barrientes (D842). The blue gown caught up with roses of the prima donna, the fan and lace mantilla of the maja, and D842 the embroidered shawl of the gypsy are glazed in MARIANO BENLLIURE Maria Barrientes brilliant colours. The head of the gypsy is based on one of a dancer which Benlliure sculptured after a dinner party in the Alhaicin at Granada to present as a memento to the Argentine ambassador, Avellaneda. Some of Benlliure's finest work has been done in these vibrant re-creations of characters from the people, so kindred to his own abundant sense of the sparkle and excitement of life. A few other modern Spanish sculptors find a place in the Hispanic Society's collections. Antonio Rodriguez Villar's bust of Sorolla (D971) was modeled in New York at the time of the Sorolla exhibition in 1909; it received a second prize at an exhibition at Valencia. Ignacio Pinazo Martinez, a Valencian, brother of the painter José, has used his copy of the Lady of Elche (D 1204) as the in- spiration for two of his works, a bust called Pagany and a statue entitled The Offering. Ismael Smith, a Catalan who has spent many years in New York, took the life mask of Enrique Granados (D967), just before the composer lost his life in the sinking of the S.S. Sussex, and sculptured the bust of the historian Milà y Fontanals (D974) which was presented to the Society by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Moisés de Huerta is a Castilian sculptor who visited Cuba, where he designed the tomb of the editor of El Diario de la Marina, Nicolas Rivero y Muñiz. A marble bust of Rivero (D346) carved by Huerta was presented to the Society by the journalist's family in 1921. A portrait bust of Armand Godoy (D1008), a gift of the poet to the Society, is the work of Juan José Sicre, who modeled it at Paris in 1928. The sculptor, born in Cuba, studied at Madrid with Miguel Blay and has since worked in Italy and France. The series of portraits of famous men include two of Fortuny, One of them (D1125) is a plaster cast of a bronze done by the Neapolitan, Vincenzo Gemito, the story of whose tragic career, his long madness and sudden recovery, was 97 HISPANIC SOCIETY ANNA HYATT HUNTINGTON The Cid Campeador 98 SCULPTURE retold at the time of his death in 1929. Fortuny wrote to Goyena in 1874, "A young Neapolitan, very talented, has undertaken to make a bust of me; he has succeeded fairly well, but as my effigy does not please me, I intend to use it for a bird's nest when I have my studio at Sevilla." He illustrated this fancy by making a sketch of the bust with birds flying round it. The other Fortuny bust, of marble (D347), is by the French sculptor. Count d'Epinay. He was an intimate friend of the painter, who has left a sketch of d'Epinay among his works. The bust is dedicated to Madame Fortuny and dated 1875, a year after the painter's death. There is a bronze version, given by the sculptor, in the collection of the Academy of San Fernando, Madrid. The work of a few modern non-Hispanic have ■PAULTROUBETZKOY SCulptors who La Argentina dealt With HiSpaniC subjects is included in the collection. By Troubetzkoy, showing his grasp of character and his impressionistic tech- nique, are a lifelike figure of Sorolla (D975), seated in an armchair, and a spirited statuette of the dancer La Argentina (D976), in one of the movements of a Spanish dance. Herbert Haseltine ^ is the author of a scene dqós |p;V« fromthebullfight(D968), ^ picador receiving the charge of the bull, based on sketches made at Rayonne in 1912, which are also in the collection of the Society. Gutzon Borglum modeled a vivid head of the archae- ÊBÊKÊK ologist Adolph Bandelier (D1202) and a bronze eques- trian statuette of the liberator Simón Bolívar (D964), is shown reining in his horse, seeming to acknowl- ' edge applause. A bronze bust of Pablo Gasals (D970) by Brenda Putnam shows him with head turned and -• '3 "I eyes half closed, in the attitude which he takes when playing the violoncello. James Earle Fraser modeled a - head of a Basque (D966), an old man with deeply lined D970' face. Two of the trustees of the Hispanic Society are represented by the marble bust of Mrs. Herbert Adams (D355) carved by her husband at Paris in 1889. Sensi- tively modeled and full of character, it is still considered one of his finest works. 99 HISPANIC SOCIETY The terraces between the two buildings of the Hispanic Society are made splendid with sculpture by Anna Hyatt Huntington. The Society is fortunate in possessing a series of works which demonstrate the range and power of one of the foremost American sculptors. The stone lions on the entrance steps, the bronze deer at the foot of the stairs to the lower terrace, and the vultures, bears, jaguars, and wild boars on the terrace of the North Building are recent examples of the animal sculpture which first brought her fame. The vitality of Renaissance work is infused into two finely proportioned flagpole bases orna- mented with a battle scene and symbolic reliefs and statuettes. Four decorative statues around the base of The Cid are figure studies which are varied in composi- tion but equally filled with vigour. The sculptor's triumph in the equestrian statue of Joan of Arc has been repeated in that of the Cid, in which she has re- created the prowess of a great warrior and the epic poetry of a legendary hero. B. G. P. CERAMICS Ill Neolithic man of the Iberlan Peninsula, leading his agricultural and pastoral life, evolves to a more familiar being through the excavation of natural caves and grottoes. Within these shelters he lived; there, when he died, he was buried with a few earthly treasures to assist him on his path to an unknown future. Alongside the neolithic skeletons are found scattered knives and arrow and spearheads of flint, chipped to a thin, sharp edge, axes, chisels, and sickles of polished stone, and pottery vessels to carry nourishment for the dead. Made from unwashed, pebbly clay, in which small particles of mica still glisten, these jars and vases were fashioned by hand without aid of a wheel. The neolithic tribes, thought to have been the inventors of pottery, may have modeled their clay to re- AËNEOLITHIC BOWL semble gourds and shells, formerly employed as El Acebuchal cooking utensils and water vessels. Hollowed out, perhaps, over the gourds, the pottery was then placed in the sun or in the open flames of the hearth fire to dry. To afford a simple decoration, cords of clay pressed with the fingers or cut with shells, while still soft, were wound hori- zontally around the vessels or stretched from mouth to base. Of the transitional era between the late neolithic and the early Bronze Age, designated often as the aëneolithic period, are the small sepulchres of Portugal and Spain in which were found copper implements. These tombs were built either in the cracks of rocks or in subterranean pits covered with mounds of stones. It was in graves of the latter variety and in adjacent wells at El Acebuchal, Sevilla, that George Edward Bonsor discovered, during the years 1905 to 1910, the black pottery with white ornamentation that is now in the collection of the Hispanic Society. The plain forms comprise shallow dishes, hemispherical bowls, besides others of bulbous shape with high collars flaring at the rims. Bands of zigzags, lozenges, checkers, herringbone stripes, and cross- hatchings encircle horizontally the pol- ished surfaces of the pottery. Usually, only the exteriors were thus embellished, but not infrequently the interiors of Eip rims or the covers of bowls were orna- AENEOLITHIC BOWL mented. Many-pointed cruciform El Acebuchal stars, patterns, and other geometrical motives decorated the bases. The designs were incised into the damp clay in a series of dots, scratches, and short lines. So 103 HISPANIC SOCIETY regular are the dotted lines that it is thought they were made with an instru- ment like a comb or a spiked wheel. The white, chalky paste filling the engrav- ings effects a lacy appearance against the clay, darkened to an uneven black, gray, or reddish brown by a smoky fire. Within Iberian territory, Andalucía is not alone in laying claim to this pot- tery. From the caves of Cataluña, from Ciempozuelos and Algodor in Castilla, from Los Millares in Almería and Palmella in Portugal, each a site of impor- tant findings, have been unearthed similar vessels and fragments. Although among them there are bowls and dishes like the examples from El Acebuchal, the campaniform vase is predominant, a somewhat modified form of which was excavated by Bonsor. However, nowhere else but in the burial ground between Sevilla and Carmona has been found the footed bowl—its pedestal at times unattached to the bowl—made of polished black clay with the aëneo- lithic style of decoration. Bowls of this kind resemble in shape the vessels en- countered frequently in the undeco- rated, Bronze-Age pottery, such as that from El Argar, Almería, and indicate a contact of the two cultures. When iron implements were of com- mon occurrence in Spain, during the AËNEOLITHIC FOOTED BOWL sixth century B Ell .c., there came an in- Acebuchal - flux of foreigners. Surging through a pass of the Pyrenees—possibly Roncesvalles—the Celtic tribes pushed their way into the Peninsula. They established themselves among the mountains of Portugal and northern Spain and on the central plateau, driving out or ab- sorbing by intermarriage the previous inhabitants, usually known as the Iberians. The Celts with their belated culture of an early Iron Age were, how- ever, more skilled in the arts than the man of the First Iron Age in Spain, to judge from a comparison of utensils and weapons of this metal and also from earthenware vessels. Their pottery, of which fine examples have been unearthed at Numancia, Las Cogotas in Avila, and Osma and Gormaz in Soria, seems like a direct descendant of the dark, polished ware with white incrustations from the aëneolithic era. Later, the Celts were to learn more advanced methods of manu- facture from the peoples whom they had subjugated, borrowing from them, also, new designs and forms. At about the same time that the Celtic tribes immigrated to Spain from the north, Greeks from Marseilles established colonies along the eastern coast. Having settled thus peacefully among the natives, the Greeks were, in future centuries, to influence profoundly the indigenous arts and crafts. The origin of the Hispanic people whom they found inhabiting the Mediterranean sea- board has caused much surmise. Apparently, they were peace loving and in- dined towards the arts rather than combat, for, although they repulsed the 104 CERAMICS Celts along the coast, they lost much of their territory within the interior. Mas- ters of stone carving and metal work, they were, moreover, skilled potters. As to what their pottery was like before the close association of these Iberian people with the Greek colonizers, little at present is known. The native pieces so far discovered, if the chronology given to Grecian vases buried beside them can be trusted, date no further back than the fifth century B .c., and most of the so-called Iberian pottery is less ancient than that by one to three centuries. The Iberian potter fashioned on a wheel lamps and vases of rose-tan clay, from which the minerals and coarse pebbles had been removed. He was igno- rant of glazes—perhaps only of their composition—but he made efforts at vase painting; designs in orange and ruddy shades and in brownish black were spread directly on the clay or else on a yellowish white engobe. In order to bake the pottery a kiln was used. This oven, constructed of clay, was built in the form of a tunnel with a lower chamber for the fire separated by a grille from the upper compartment, in which the earthenware was stacked. Variety in the abundance and kind of decoration on pre-Roman pottery of Spain, as found in several regions, has led to a classification of the pottery into four sections: the Southeast, Andalucía, Castilla, and Aragón. The Southeast, including Murcia and extending into Cataluña, was the most strongly influ- enced by Hellenistic art. To the provinces of Córdoba, Jaén, and Sevilla in Andalusian territory belong urns of spherical or cylindrical shape. Their manufacturers borrowed for their adornment only those simple geometrical designs seen on the pot- tery of other regions where the painted ware was made. The ruddy tan clay is ringed with horizontal bands of varying widths, tinted dark red, brown, or pale orange. Several cinerary urns of this design, found in 1905 by Bonsor at La Cruz del Negro near Carmona, are now in the collection of the Hispanic Society. They have globular bodies, small open- ings at the top, and rather high collars, each with two ring handles attached at opposite points. A more elaborate pattern, five groups of concentric circles in a row, bordered by horizontal stripes, is painted around the bulbous sides of another urn (E41). The surface of the vase ap- pears to have been spread with a white PRE-ROMAN CINERARY URN coating which La Cruz del were brushed the stripes Negro on and circles of pale brick red with accentuating outlines in brownish black. That this urn as well as other Andalusian examples were Phœnician importa- 105 HISPANIC SOCIETY tions was formerly the opinion of scholars. But the similarity of the Andalusian earthenware with that found in other regions, amid circumstances which at- test to its indigenous manufacture, indicates that the pre-Roman painted pottery of southern Spain was a product of the Peninsula and not an importation. So close is the resemblance existing between Greek and Italiote vase paint- ing and shapes and those of the Iberian pottery that there remains no doubt of the Hellenistic influence. Spain, during the third century B.c., was trampled by the armies of Carthage and of Rome. Having subdued the Carthaginians, the Romans fought on to conquer the native tribes, with the result that the Celtiberians surrendered between the years 134 and 132 B.c. after a final, desperate battle on the plains of Numancia. The Hispanic potters could not have been immediately affected by this change of power. That they continued to fashion the same shapes for perhaps another century may be deduced from the quantities of their pottery from Itálica, like certain of the Society's jugs and vases, found buried together with Roman wares. Until the fifth century of our era, Rome dominated Spain whose territory was, on occasion, the field of combat where numerous political differences were settled. During the long peaceful years which followed these bickerings, the native tribes gradually absorbed the culture of the Romans: customs, law, phi- losophy, and the arts. Through- out the Peninsula, architectural remains bear witness to vast en- deavours in the building of aque- ducts, bridges, gateways, theatres, baths, and other edifices, both public and private, with colon- naded passages, sculptured dec- orations, frescoed walls, and pat- terned floors of stone mosaics. Fragments of a Roman mosaic (U1) excavated by Bonsor at Alcolea del Rio (Canania) adorn the walls of the main staircase at the Hispanic Museum. A head of GEORGE EDWARD BONSOR Medusa forms the central panel, Mosaic from Alcolea del Rio and four tritons, three of which are in the collection, originally filled the corners. Excavations of Roman necropolises in Spain reveal pagan funerary rites 106 CERAMICS not only in the kinds of tombs, but also in the furnishings and paraphernalia necessary to proper burial of the dead. Among im- portant finds have been those made at Tarragona, Ampurias, Cádiz, Bolonia, and those in the vicin- ity of Carmona and Sevilla. The latter settlements s yB I in Andalucía contributed mainly to the formation W Ê of the Hispanic Society's group of Roman pottery ; m libation bowls and jugs, cinerary urns and small oil ■ • i; lamps were the vessels discovered in these tombs. ■ Roman ceramics may be classified into two Bji groups : unglazed pottery and that known as Ar- retine ware or terra sigillaia, a glazed, red pottery, its supposed source being the town of Arezzo. Cin- erary urns, bowls, jug£>s,' and vases of pí-ale clayj with e250 •' ' roman jug no glazing were made abundantly both in Rome and in its provinces. Within Spanish bound- aries have been discovered such vessels in an endless variety of shapes, made from many-tinted clays to which was added no embellishment save occasionally a simple pattern of incised hatchings. A most interesting example among the pottery of this style is a cinerary urn from Mérida (E311 ) of whitish clay, two bands of hatchings around the cylindrical body and one encircling the conical lid. The little oil lamps, used in lighting houses and public buildings, in processions, and for votive offer- ings, as well as in the tombs of the dead, were roman cinerary urn moulded in two parts from Mérida . . , I unglazed tan, pink, or ashen clay. The lamps generally had round reser- voirs with one or more projecting nozzles, and to some were attached handles. The slightly concave tops were, as a rule, ornamented with bas-reliefs of deities or national heroes, historical or popular scenes, animals or floral designs. In the Society's collection of Roman lamps, which number more than fifty, are included various motives: winged Victories, the head of Phœbus the Sun God, human heads and masks, chariots with two steeds, a sacrificial scene, a bear attacking a horse, and beasts of both land and sea. Roman lamp Infrequently, there was inscribed on the top of the First ... i l·l* century a.d. lamp an account of the circumstances under which it was made, a description of the subject portrayed on the reservoir, or a greeting. 107 HISPANIC SOCIETY It is more usual to find the potter's name printed across the base; M. Messius Fortunatos, C. Oppius Restitutus, and L. Muniatus Threptus, all in abbreviated forms, are stamped on several examples in the Hispanic Museum. Since these names are impressed on numerous lamps from countries besides Spain, the as- sumption that they were importations either from the mother country or from other provinces seems to be well founded. Likewise, the discovery of identical subject designs on lamps found in widely separated regions leads to the supposition that trade was extensive and that the potters of different local- ities kept in close touch with each other. Although they are utilitarian objects of common, coarse clay, the large amphorae and dolia, vessels for the transportation or storage of oil, wine, grain, and other products, have, from their vast numbers, the variety of their potters' marks, and the localities where they have been found, pictured the story of Spain's commerce with Rome. During the last years of the nineteenth century the German archaeologist, Heinrich Dressel, revealed that a hill near Rome, Monte Testaccio, was built of amphora shards and that, judging from the seals on them, their places of origin could all be ascribed to Spain. A multitude of potters' marks from this mound are identical with those found by Bonsor between Córdoba and Sevilla along the Guadalquivir River and its tributary, the Genii. Tan clay with yellow or pink tinges was used in fashioning amphorae. They were thick walled, of cylindrical or spherical shape tapering to sharp points. These spiked bases were pushed into the earth to hold the jar upright in the wine cellar or storage room but, in the house, metal or wooden standards supported them. It is believed that only the spherical variety was used for oil, while the tall cylinders contained wine. Two handles were placed on opposite sides of the small necks, and stoppers of clay closed the mouths. After the unglazed wine jars emerged from the baking kiln, they were lined with pitch so that their liquid con- tents would not be absorbed by the porous clay. Although two wine amphorae (E220-E221) in the gallery of the Hispanic Museum are now without any signatures to designate from what town and pot- tery they came or in what year they were manu- factured, it seems probable that at one time they bore such distinguishing marks. One of them—and ROMAN AMPHORA it is covered with barnacles—was pulled out of the Gandul First-second century Mediterranean Sea near Cartagena; the other was taken by Bonsor on August 28th, 1910, from a crema- tion grave at La Cañada Honda (Gandul) near Sevilla. Three amphorae handles (E222-E224) are clearly stamped, one with the seal of Saxum Ferreum, the 108 CERAMICS present site of Ermita de Belén, another from near Alcolea with the letters L. Q. S., and the third with an impression used at La Peña de la Sal. These pot- teries were in the valley of the Baetis. Of finer clay and more delicate workmanship is that coral red ware which supposedly originated with the potters of Arezzo during the second century before the Christian era. Shapes and designs, inspired by the gold and silver table services of the rich, were composed in this medium for the less affluent households. The native red clay was carefully worked, turned within moulds on the wheel, dipped into a thin glaze and hard baked. The moulded bas-relief decorations encircling these rather small dishes consisted of human figures depicting Dionysiac scenes, Cupids, Muses, Seasons, and the like. Sometimes the figures were merely decorative motives placed among wreaths or scrolls of foliage, and again, the floral, vegetal, and architectural designs were the sole ornamentation. Characteristic of the Arretine pottery is the seal of the potter stamped on either interior or exterior of the vessel. Often, among the intricacies of the design may be deciphered the potter's name, alone or combined with that of the slave or apprentice who fashioned the dish. After the first century a.d ., the manufac- ture of sigillate pottery died out in Italy, per- haps because many potters had wandered to Gaul and Germany to vivify the art. The ware used in the Italian Peninsula later than this period was probably supplied by provincial workshops to the markets of Rome. Terra sigil- lata remarkably similar to its Italian model spread throughout Central Europe and down into Spain. A limited number of provincial fab- rics of high repute sent their artistic wares to widely separated localities, a fact deduced from the surprising duplication of potters' marks on terra sigillata from numerous sites. Classical writers mention the earthenware of Saguntum, but without suffi- cient description to identify it as like that produced at Arezzo and the Gallic and Germanic provinces. However, basing their theories on the slight evidence, scholars have conjectured that Spain also had centres at which the red, moulded pottery was manufactured. No absolute proof was forthcoming until the dis- covery of kilns and workshops at Abella and Solsona in Cataluña. It is true that Roman fabrics had been found in Spain several years before the examination of the two Catalan sites, but their ovens contained no fragments of pottery, or else, like those excavated by Bonsor at settlements along the Guadalquivir, they were built for the manufacture of coarse, unglazed ware. Aside from fragments of terra sigillata scattered about the workshops of Abella and Solsona were moulds for bowls and masses of wasters. This archaeological find strengthens the presumption that other thriving Roman centres in Spain, 109 HISPANIC SOCIETY such as Mérida, Ampurias, Tarragona, and cities within the southern provinces of Cádiz and Sevilla, made their own sigillate pottery. Still based on metal-work designs, vessels of sharp, angular outlines developed from the orig- inal Arretine shapes, and new forms evolved. Shallow bowls with narrow, curving brims; dishes with low sides turning up abruptly from a flat base; one-handled jugs with globular bodies; bowls, with high, slightly flaring or convex walls; others with wide, concave brims which curl up from a deep centre—these oft-repeated forms are represented in the Hispanic Society's E299 collection, either ornately decorated or with no GALLO-ROMAN BOWL Villafranca de los Barros embellishment but their bright red colour- Late first-early second century ing and potters' marks. There is, also, an extraordinary piece, a flask (E307), found at Osuna, a Sevillian fortress town. The circular disk-like body has no base on which to rest, and on opposite sides of a narrow neck, that flares to- wards the mouth, are looped two ribbon handles. Vessels of this kind were used as decanters in bring- ing wine to the table. Other uncommon shapes are those of a small bottle representing a wine skin, and a two-handled vase (E371). E291 Provincial potters made use of a variety of GALLO-ROMAN BOWL decoration in their Villafranca de los Barros Late first-second century interpretations of Arretine ware. Besides the sigillate pottery, they fashioned vessels, on the smooth sides of which they applied figures and medallions made in sep- arate little wooden or metallic moulds. When the dish was partially dry, to it were attached these reliefs of damp clay. Another mode of de- sign was the incision of geometrical patterns into the sides of the vessel. Similar to the incised technique is that used on small black bowls or cups belonging to the Society: an all-over pat- tern of tiny squares or dashes pricked into the clay which was either E307 polished or lightly glazed. GALLO-ROMAN FLASK Other little bowls look as though a coating of Osuna sand had been rubbed into the glaze while it First century A.D. was still wet. An innovation probably introduced by provincial potters under Roman 110 CERAMICS influence was the barbotine technique, the application of a thick, semifluid slip to form the design. In appearance, decorations in this manner have been aptly likened to ornaments of cake frosting. The half dozen or more small cups and bowls at the Hispanic Museum were brought from sites at Gandul and Itálica. Their clays are of various tints, ruddy or yellowish tans and ashen or rosy grays, and the slip is not always of the same shade as the base on which it is applied. Gracefully flowing designs of flowers, foliage, and animals trail around the curv- ing sides of these vessels; a row of clover blossoms bending in the wind; stiff lotus buds between curv- ing leaf stalks and lily pads; a ring of pointed leaves or buds; fern leaves and curling, unopened fronds; a doe bounding along the stem of a gigantic bud. Covered by transparent glaze with little brilliance and stamped with no pot- ter's seal, these bowls do not seem to be importations. Rather, from the abun- dance of the supply as well as from their appearance may be claimed for them a Spanish provenance. Among the hordes of Germanic peoples pressing into the Iberian Penin- sula during the fifth century were conquering Visigoths who took up their abode and remained until they in turn were subjugated three centuriès later by the Arabs. The Visigoths had come in contact with the Romans before their entry into Spain; they had, in all probability, already borrowed certain Latin arts and customs, so that the ways of the Hispano-Romans could not have been entirely new to them. The conquerors accepted the artistic traditions of the conquered. That the products of the ceramic industry remained much the same under the Visi- gothic regimen as they had been during the Roman may be deduced from archaeological finds and from the writings of Saint Isidore, who lived during the seventh century. The scant number of pieces which exist at present suggest, also, a Byzantine influence. Lozenge-shaped bricks from Burguillos in Badajoz, with moulded conventional patterns, and unglazed earthenware tablets from widely scattered sources, with Christian symbols and inscriptions, are the chief examples. In the collection of the Hispanic Society, there are three such tablets, of which one (E490), with the chrismon, the letters alpha and omega, and the proper name Marciano moulded on its surface, was excavated from a site near Morón de la Frontera in the province of Sevilla. It appears to have been made in honour of Marciano, who was bishop of Ecija during the early years of the seventh century. Invited to Spain, it is believed, by a warring faction among the Visigoths, to aid in subduing its stronger enemy, and encouraged by the Spanish Jews, Tarik the Berber crossed the straits from Africa and landed at Gibraltar in 711. Despite their original rôle of ally, the Arabs soon flooded Spain, taking complete possession of the country until Muhammadan civilization replaced Roman. HISPANIC SOCIETY Peace, after two centuries of constant civil war, was established by Caliph 'Abd al-Rahmân the Third, who reigned from 912 to 961, and was continued by his son Hakim the Second. Under their tutelage, agriculture and industry, literature and the fine arts flourished, and Córdoba became the important centre of Muhammadan culture in the west. Executed with care and artistic skill is the glazed ware, found at Medina Azzahra, its white engobe decorated in green and black with occasional touches of yellow and blue. This palace-city, built near Córdoba by 'Abd al-Rahmân and completed by his son, was demol- ished by the Berbers in 1010, so that objects found within its walls can be accurately dated. There remain only broken pieces of this pottery which formerly graced the caliphs' households. Because the designs embellishing it re- produce architectural motives of the palace, the pottery is believed to have E490 been the output of a local fabric. Pal- VISIGOTHIC TABLET Seventh century mettes, Arabic leaves, birds, and human forms were usual decorations, as well as Kufic inscriptions, guilloche bands, and chevrons. Medina Elvira, not far from Granada, and Medinaceli in Castilla have both yielded vessels of the same kind of design and colouring, and similar fragments also have been found within the province of Valencia. The ruins of Medina Azzahra offered a surprise—shards of golden pottery. Whether or not the gold-lustred ware was manufactured within the grounds of the Caliph 'Abd al-Rahman's palace has caused some speculation. However, in comparing it with the green, white, and black pieces, enough differences have been discerned to assure a foreign provenance for the lustred variety: differences in the colouring of the clays, in the way the objects are glazed, in the appearance of the glazes, and above all in the styles of decoration. Unlike the motives carved on the palace, the designs resemble more closely those on the shimmering lustre pottery from Persia and Mesopotamia. Even if golden pottery was imported by the Cordovan caliphs to add to the splendour of their luxurious Medina Azzahra, Arabic potters of Toledo by the following century had learned the technical complexities of olra dorada. The proof is established in a notary's contract form which mentions gold- lustred bowls. Decorated with the metallic glaze, certain fragments which were 112 CERAMICS excavated in Toledo may possibly be pieces of this eleventh-century ware. The Almohades, Moors from northern Africa, overwhelming the Muham- madan tribes in Spain, held the country completely in their power by 1172. Under their domination was developed in all its phases that branch of the ceramic art known as Hispano-Moresque. Malaga and Granada attract attention as centres in the manufacture of metallic-lustred pottery from the thirteenth century, when Ibn Sa'id, Granadine writer, stated that at Malaga was made a glazed, gilded "porcelain". Other Muhammadan writers continued to extol the city for its golden pottery; com- munities in neighbouring provinces began to imitate its product which became popularly known as ohra de malica. Its fame lasted but two hundred years, for the Reconquest in 1487 probably brought this Moorish industry to an end. As for Granada, no literary account proves the existence of pottery workshops within the court of the Nasrid kings. But if these Moslem rulers sponsored the weaving of textiles and the carving of wood, marble, and plaster to adorn their Alhambra, it is not an ill-founded belief that they fostered also the manu- facture of the gold-lustred octagonal tiles, such as that (E7I0) belonging to the Hispanic Society, and of large, wing-handled vases like that in the Hall of the Two Sisters, the Alhambra. The ruddy shade of the clay, the Nasrid coat of arms as a motive for decoration, and, contrary to the Malagan style, the use of blue glaze as well as the metallic lustre are individual features of the ware, native to Granada. The workshops of Granada produced the vase of which a small fragment (E734) and the neck (E576), severed where it joined the body, are now in the Hispanic Museum. Vertical ridges and a central, horizontal band around the vase neck divide the exterior into narrow compart- ments on which are painted sky blue and dull golden patterns— Arabic leaves and inscriptions, scrolls, and vairs. A ring of gold- ES76 HISPANO-MORESQUE VASE NECK bordered circles with stylized Granada Arabic writing at the centres Late I4th-early 15th century completes the decoration at the base of the collar. The overhanging rim is painted in gold lustre. During the seventeenth century, two vases and the fragments of another 113 HISPANIC SOCIETY were excavated near the Plaza de los Aljibes in the Alhambra; various writers, in describing the Moorish palace, mentioned them. In 1842 Owen Jones noted that the pieces of one vase, which had been broken a few years before, were sold to travelers. Perhaps the vase neck and the fragment, passing from hand to hand, at last found their way to Paris whence the Society acquired them. Osma had no doubts that the collar was from the vase broken during the nine- teenth century. Certainly, it re- sembles strongly the drawings by Murphy and Lozano, made at the Alhambra, previous to the destruction of the vase. Besides the lustred tiles of the Alhambra, there were the bril- liantly glazed chips, called aliceres, forming intricate geometrical pat- terns on the dadoes around the palace walls. These mosaics were cut from large tiles glazed green, honey yellow, white, black, or turquoise. The aliceres, shaped as Andalucía every conceivable kind of poly- Fourteenth century gon, were fitted side by side, fac- ing downwards on a pattern. They were then plastered together to make the large panels which could be inserted into the walls. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Andalusians favoured this ornamentation above any other, and to the present day, tile mosaics remain on their Moorish-style build- ings, especially at Sevilla and Córdoba. Several examples of the work, eight aliceres, came from a wall mosaic in the Palace of las Alijares, Granada, and there are panels from various parts of Andalucía. Contemporary with aliceres are certain square or rectangular tiles; their surfaces, painted in black, white, green, and honey yellow, were first impressed with a mould to form relief patterns for separating and holding the glazes. Their aspect is Christian, not Moslem, for on them are the coats of arms of the knights who helped King Ferdinand the Saint to capture Córdoba from the Moors in 1236. Tombs in Córdoba Cathedral were the sources of these tiles, of which an example is in the Hispanic Society's collection. From the Church of Santa Marina at Sevilla came two yellow tiles (E505-E506) impressed with shields, one bearing a black spread eagle and the other a three-towered castle, the devices of Don Felipe, son of King Ferdinand. Originally, with others they formed a border to a tile mosaic dado of the thirteenth century. As building wall panels from tiny bits of tile was a tedious and expensive process, fifteenth-century potters hit upon the plan of making square tiles look like mosaics by use of the cuerda seca technique. The outlines of the design were drawn with a mixture of manganese and grease, so that, when the inter- É532 HISPANO-MORESQUE TILE MOSAIC 114 CERAMICS stices were filled with different-coloured glazes, they could not run together. This process was familiar to the artisans of Medina Azzahra and Medina Elvira, but it was more commonly used through- out the fifteenth and sixteenth centu- ries in Andalucía and Castilla. Cuerda seca tiles with Muhammadan patterns remained popular well into the six- teenth century, contemporaneous with the new decorative modes which were then being introduced at Sevilla. A num- her of these late products are in the Society's collection. Decorated in the same manner were drug jars, pitchers, bowls, vases, and plates in which Gothic designs mingled with the Moslem. Across the surfaces of two Sevillian plates of cuerda seca (E501-E502), fan- HISPANO-MORESQUE PLATE tastic creatures, the wivern and the Sevilla harpy, spread their wings. Toledo was the Fifteenth century source of architectural finials with their green, yellow, white, and black glazes separated by the "dry cord", two specimens (E529-E530) of which are in the Hispanic Museum. Vertical stripes and bands of foliage cover their ovoid sides. Unglazed earthenware tinajas with half-crescent handles, egg-shaped bodies, and tall, flaring collars carried on an earlier tradition. Vessels of this kind, employed for the storage of foodstuffs, were produced in all parts of Moslem Spain, with so little variety in design that to determine in which province they were manufactured would be difficult, if not impos- sible. Relief or intaglio patterns were made on the damp clay surfaces of the jars by stamping them with moulds, punches, and sharp implements. Be- longing to the Hispanic Society is such a tinaja (E738), its collar broken off, adorned with large, five-fingered leaves. Some of the jars are glazed, wholly or partially, with green and honey-coloured coverings. A green vase with Christian motives is a later development of the tinaja. ES29 Wellheads and baptismal fonts—large, un- HISPANO-MORESQUE FINIAL wieldy pieces which must have been fired only with Probably Toledo Late 15th-early 16th century great labour—were fashioned from clay by the Andalusian and Toledan potters of the fifteenth century. The wellheads, familiar objects to the water-loving Muhammadans, were high cylinders or polygons glazed with white tin enamel, their moulded 115 HISPANIC SOCIETY bands of ornamentation tinted green. An expansion of Gothic design together with a corresponding wane of Moorish ornament may be distinguished on the baptismal fonts. They were made chiefly at Sevilla by men, some of whose names have been preserved by documents and, in one case, by the signature encircling the basin itself. Of the fonts attributed to Toledo, one (E503) is in the gallery of the Hispanic Museum. It is octagonal with a conical base. The decorations are painted green on the white ground; Gothic lettering, crosses, shields, and Grecian frets are impressed into or ap- plied to the surface. Such Moorish mo- tives as the hand of Fâtimah and the eye, protections against evil, are dis- tributed among the Christian symbols. While Castilla and Andalucía were E738 being regained from the Moors, the prov- HISPANO-MORESQUE TINAJA inces of the east coast were Probably fifteenth similarly century reclaimed by James the Conqueror, King of Aragón. After the capture of Valencia in 1238, the King carried on his conquests in Murcia, which he took for the Castilian king, Alfonso the Wise. Although James had wished to penetrate to Granada, he failed because of his nobles' lagging en- thusiasm, and the re- conquest of this sole remaining Moorish kingdom was left un- til two hundred years later for Ferdinand and Isabel. Allowed to continue their trade under rulers not of their faith, the Moslem hispano-more^que baptismal font Toledo , , potters were joined, as Fifteenth century time passed, by Chris- tian artisans, while some followers of Muhammad were baptized into the Christian 116 CERAMICS faith. To these circumstances may be ascribed the combination of Muhammadan and Romanesque or Muhammadan and Gothic designs in Hispano-Moresque pottery. Preceding the introduction of gold lustre to Valencia, the potters made a tin-enameled ware, decorating it with green and black designs, somewhat reminiscent of the eleventh-century product from Medina Azzahra. The centre of the industry, if the vast number of fragments unearthed at the site is an indication, was Paterna, a small town near the capital of the province. No Valencian document dating previous to the arrival of gold lustre and de- scribing the green, black, and white pottery has been discovered so far, and the fourteenth and fifteenth-century potters' contracts refer only to the lustre made at Manises, near Valencia, or to common, unglazed earthenware manu- factured at Paterna. Thus, may be assumed its priority to gold lustre and its gradual decrease in popularity with the intro- duction of a new mode. The designs on Paterna ware, drawn in green and purplish or brownish black, proclaim the vessels to be of the thirteenth through the early fifteenth centuries. A bowl (E739), illustrative of characteristic geometrical designs, is sec- tioned off by green bands, and the resulting cartouches painted with black spirals and brick patterns. Constituting the adornment of other dishes are crosshatching, green foliage, Arabic BOWL >' inscriptions, and heraldic shields; a plate bear- HISPANO-MORESQUE Paterna, Valencia ing the arms of Maria de Luna, wife of King Probably fourteenth century Martin the First of Aragon, is in a Valencian private collection. Stylistically painted in scallops, in rows of green spots, in broad green stripes and black hair lines is a little bird at the centre of a bowl (E740), an instance of the use of animals, fishes, and birds, both fantastic and realistic, in the glazed ware of Paterna. Much of the facility in dating this pottery is due to the costumes worn by human beings represented on a variety of pitchers, bowls, plates, and tiles. The long- skirted, high-waisted dresses of the ladies, with pointed crowns on flowing locks of hair, and the peaked hoods and armour of the men, with their gayly caparisoned horses, recall figures in Roman- esque painting and sculptured images like those E746 on capitals around the cloister of Santa Maria de HISPANO-MORESQUE PLATE Teruel Estany. A coarse imitation of this pottery was Sixteenth century manufactured by Aragonese workmen at Teruel. Of the ware the Society has a plate (E746) and two apothecaries' mortars. 117 HISPANIC SOCIETY Vessels with blue designs painted on the white ground were fashioned simul- leously with the golden lustre at Manises. Paterna proved to be imitator of this ware and made such articles as a bowl (E743), across the centre of which is drawn in dark blue a long-eared rabbit, and around the border, stars and fanlike ornaments. Of the same colouring were the majority of Gothic pave- ment tiles for which, in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, Valencia was acclaimed both near and far. Mosaics of tile had not so strong an appeal for the peoples of the eastern coast of Spain as had those tiles known in the Valencian tongue E743 as rajoles. They were cut into HISPANO-MORESQUE BOWL squares, triangles, Paterna. Valencia stars, crosses, and elongated hexagons (alfardons), Fifteenth century of which there are two in the Society's collection decorated with a Latin motto on a ribbon garland. Borders of tile panels were formed at times of pentagons, semicircles, or of S-shaped tiles; all the pieces were considerably larger than the alicer. The patterns for placing rajoles are divers, from the simple plan of rectangles or squares of the same dimensions to the more elaborate use of several different shapes in one pavement. Usually, on the white background of Valencian rajoles were drawn decorative motives in blue glaze. In rare instances, touches of gold enriched the designs, but the lustre was fragile and apt to wear away with the constant scuffing of feet across its surface. Manganese, varying from brownish black to purple, was used alone or in conjunction with blue or green. Reminiscent of the Paterna ware in colour yet Gothic in design, these green and manganese tiles were pro- duced in several Valencian towns and at Teruel in Aragón. Showing a marked resemblance to tile mosaics, the earliest blue and white Valencian tiles, made during the fourteenth century, were painted with Muhammadan patterns of interlacery. Along with the Moorish element, Gothic and heraldic designs later took their places ; most of the floral, geometrical, and animal patterns were duplications on tiles of the ornamentation on contemporary gold-lustred dishes. The Society's collection of Gothic tiles, with their predom- inance of heraldry, indicate the partiality shown by kings, nobles, and digni- taries of the church for their mottoes or devices and their coats of arms as adornments for paving tiles. A greyhound and lozenges mark one tile (E714) with the arms of the lady Leonor de Queralt. The Valencian Pope Alexander's device of the double crown is painted on a tile (E715) from his son's ducal palace at Gandía, and on other rajoles (E7I6-E717), the arms of Bartolomé Martí, bishop of Segorbe and afterwards cardinal, and (E722) those of Domingo Porta, abbot of Poblet. Civic buildings were often paved with tiles, the designs on which were the coats of arms of the city or the province, and for the guildhall floors were rajoles depicting the emblems of shoemaker, furrier, glover, or carpenter. 118 CERAMICS Ë716 E714 E711 E720 E722 hispano-moresque gothic tiles Valencia Fifteenth century The unfinished tassel, sign of the Tassel Makers' Guild, adorns an example (E720) in the collection. Large ceiling tiles, of which a specimen (E726) belongs to the Hispanic Society, were fashioned and glazed in - . the same manner as the pavement tiles. All were emblazoned with the quartered arms of wolves or lions and castles. Unglazed ceiling tiles, their red, yellow, and black decorations painted directly on the clay surface or on a covering of white lime, were made at several small towns near Valencia. They were called socarrats, a Valencian term indicating that they had had but a single baking in the kiln. The design on a socarrat •— hispano-moresque socarrat (E735), a bull and a running dog on a Probably Paterna background of spirals and palmettes. Fifteenth century shows that their patterns might be identical with those on glazed tiles of the period. The chief distinction in the decoration of these unglazed socarrats was the satirization of current fashions in both dress and customs. The sixteenth century intro- jj duced Renaissance motives to -̂^ the Valencian rajoles, together with a revival of Muhammadan designs. Catalan-Gothic tiles, di- rect copies of the Valencian, re- peated their designs and differed from them only in technicalities. E727 E729 Representative of such tiles are hispano-moresque gothic tiles those (E727-E729) with the Sixtînthcentury ^rms of the Church of Nucstra Señora del Pino, Barcelona, and of the Aguilera and Bolet families. The white enamel covering them is trans- lucent, permitting the reddish tint of the clay to show through it, and the 119 HISPANIC SOCIETY blue is bright cobalt, lacking the greenish tinge found in the Valencian glaze. Pottery referred to in records as ohra de malica was obviously imitative of the ware made at Málaga. Two inventories, compiled in 1341 and 1343, are the earliest documents so far discovered to mention pottery of this variety, but throughout the succeeding years frequent references to it can be found. Manises, near the capital of the province, was the headquarters for ohra de malica and remained so until the late years of the fifteenth century, sending out master potters, when necessary, to work in other cities of Spain and in foreign countries. Contemporary writers specified that Malagan pottery was golden, and thus it follows that the Valencian copy must also have been lustred. Further proof lies in the writings of Fra Francesch Eximeniç, who in 1383 described the pottery made at Manises as golden, and in letters of Queen Maria of Aragón, who com- manded Pedro Boil in 1454 to order for her golden dishes of "obra de mélica". She explained having made this request of him by saying that, since he lived at Manises, he was at the source of gold lustre ware. That the early gold lustre of Valencia was not shaped elaborately may be deduced from the vessels belonging to the Hispanic Society, among them being broad-brimmed deep dishes mod- eled from metallic basins of the East and bowls called escudelles, of which there is an unusual example (E632) with four flat lugs to lift it. Tall, E632 cylindrical drug jars placed in rows lined the HISPANO-MORESQUE BOWL pharmacy shelves, and household possessions in- Valencia eluded platters called tayadors, bowls, pitchers, Late 15th-early 16th century vases, and plates, some of which were pierced with holes for hanging on the walls of a room. The shapes used by goldsmiths and silversmiths for their products were imitated by the sixteenth-century potters. Bosses and gadroons were moulded in repousse, while ridges and pellets in relief adorned the surfaces of vessels ; animal figures were in- Y cised or in relief. A small E630 '^^HISPANO-MORESQUE ornamented with ga- HISPANO-MORESQUE TAZZA TAZZA droons Valencia in relief, and rests Sixteenth century Valencia. Sixteenth century ^ widenS tO form a circular base. Three large tazzas (E629, E630, E633) similarly decorated are possibly of the kind known as greals to Valencians. There is also a ewer 120 CERAMICS (E612) which must quite evidently have been copied from a silver model. Later manifestations were water bottles of odd, barrel shape and vases like the pair (E680-E681) made for Pope Paul the Fifth. Holy-water stoups and small plaques with figures of the Virgin and Child or of saints were also made in abundance. Preeminently, gold lustre coloured the ohra de ma- lica, but in conjunction with it was used a fair amount of blue. Purple from manganese sparingly tinted heraldic devices. Especially in pieces of early date, as in the bowl (E643), did the azure delicately balance E6i2 the gold, which varied in HISPANO-MORESQUE EWER Valencia shade and in the colours Sixteenth century which it reflected. Pale gold gleamed with opalescent tints, and ruddy gold flashed red, blue, and copper lights. As the centuries passed, blue designs disappeared; less care in the choice of ingredients and in their mixture caused the metallic lustre to change to an unpleasant, bright copper, lacking in iridescence. Gothic designs, from the first part of the fifteenth century, began to intermingle with Muhammadan patterns, direct imitations of those on lustre ware from Malaga and Granada. Principally important in dating Valencian pottery are the coats of arms on the centres of dishes and bowls or on the bodies of pitchers and vases. A dish and a bowl, bearing the arms of Queen Maria, wife of Alfonso the Fifth HISPANO-MORESQUE COVERED JAR of Aragon, were painted in blue and gold with Valencia. 1605-1621 oval and half-oval car- touches, bands of ala- fia—that is, stylized Arabic inscriptions—and the tree-of-life design. Very little, if any, Moorish influence may be traced in the dishes decorated with small clusters of berries and round-petaled flowers on a background of dots. The usual cen- tral motives for this style of design were large birds, lions, dogs, and deer, and with such decora- tions are adorned several examples, including a deep dish (E586), in the Society's collection. Few Es86 coats of arms appeared on pottery designed in HISPANO-MORESQUE DEEP DISH this fashion. An array of Italian, French, and Span- Valencia Fifteenth century ish coats of arms are backed by patterns of vine leaves and bryony plants. This foliage, represented almost naturalistically, was 121 HISPANIC SOCIETY E643 HISPANO-MORESQUE BOWL Valencia Early fifteenth century 122 CERAMICS an innovation to Hispano-Moresque pottery in the second half of the century when knowledge of the beauty of ohra de Manises had been spread abroad generally. On the plates, bowls, and other sorts of dish- es exhibited in the Museum of the Hispanic Society may be recognized hispano-moresque plate the flowery mount hispano-moreisque deep dish . Valencia of the Catalan fam- Valencia . Fifteenth century Dggp^Jg . qj Despujol (E551 ), the chevrons and cross of the Guasconi (E627), the rampant lions of both the Tedali and the Gentili families—^all Florentines—the bend charged with three swallows carried by Lorenzo di Mariotto Benvenuti, and the red and gold bars the vine leaf and contemporary with it were the ferns, frequently combined with crowns. Other large gold leaves with scalloped, serrate, or notched edges, like those on a plateau (E578) with the arms of Castilla-León, must have ginning of the next, to judge from a plateau of identical shape with the arms of Isabel de Carvajal who died in 1523. Short vertical lines hispano-moresque plateau between rows of Valencia , ! dots, also, were Fifteenth century an offshoot of the vine leaf. Slanting or vertical gadroons, moulded in repousse or indicated in glaze, decorated the brims of plates and bodies of vases and goblets. A favourite kind of orna- mentation during the sixteenth century, it must have originated before then, for belonging to the Hispanic Society is a large plate (E577) with painted gadroons and, in the centre, the i coat of arms of Joan Payo Coello, abbot of hispano-moresque plate Poblet Monastery from 1 480 to 1 499. A plate Valencia (E651) with the arms of Aragón-Sicily is ringed by bands on which are inscribed the words Domine surge. Such extracts of Latin verses, often combined with gadroons, 123 HISPANIC SOCIETY after a time degenerated to a meaningless scribble. Large, carelessly drawn floral designs were prominent in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, as well as birds hopping or winging their way among thick foliage which looks like tightly coiled wire springs. Fig- E6si E688 HISPANO-MORESQUE PLATE ures of human HISPANO-MORESQUE DEEP DISH Valencia beings appeared Valencia Sixteenth century Late 16th on early Hispano- 15th-early century Moresque pottery and were later used extensively. A horseman on a prancing charger covers the obverse of a deep dish (E688) dating from the late fifteenth to the early sixteenth century, and illustrating similar designs within the next hundred years is the winged cherub's head in the cavity of a plate (E665). Carnations and their narrow leaf- age, combined with fantastic animals and con- ventionalized peacocks, were characteristic of the eighteenth century. The ornamentation of Hispano-Moresque plates included not only patterns applied to the obverses but to the reverses also. The Hispanic Society's collection includes designs of spread E66s eagles, a stork, HISPANO-MORESQUE PLATE and hare care- Possibly Cataluña a Late 16th-early 17th century fully painted. The foliage designs on the top surfaces are often repeated for the decoration of reverses; spiraled lines and concentric circles, central rosettes, surrounded by circles and a band of gold plumage, also embellish the backs of many vessels. In the rare instances when markings like signatures have been found on glazed Hispano- EsSp Moresque ware, they have generally remained REVERSE OF PLATE Valencia undeciphered. Nor, indeed, is it certain that Fifteenth century characters resembling Arabic letters, such as those on the backs of several dishes in the Society's collection, are potters' marks or motives in the decorative scheme. 124 CERAMICS Tiles and a baptismal font from Sevilla have proved exceptions, for on them are painted in Gothic lettering the names of their makers. If the pottery itself does not reveal who fashioned it, Toledan, Valencian, and Sevillian documents of the four- teenth through the sixteenth century abound with names of Moorish potters and their Christian associates. Most fa- mous of Sevillians was Fernán Martínez Guijarro, who was declared to surpass POSSIBLE SIGNATURE ON REVERSE OF BOWL all potters of the kingdom, until his death in 1509, as a master craftsman of tiles and fonts. It was he who worked on restorations of the Alcázar at the command of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel and, together with his son, exported tiles to Portugal. At Manises, a long line of potters named Murci, or Almurci, began about 1325, became especially prominent about the middle of the following century with Juan, and lasted still another hundred years. Juan it was who supplied Don Galceran de Requesens with a large quantity of tiles and, as a favourite of King Alfonso the Fifth, made the pavements for the Castel Nuovo at Naples. Two families of potters, the Payoni and the Alcudori, took prominent places in the records of fifteenth- century Paterna. After the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1609, the gold lustre con- tinned to be produced at Manises, and, in fact, there has been but little inter- ference in the continuity of its manufacture from the Middle Ages to the present day. While Manises clung to Moorish and Gothic traditions, other cities of Spain began, with the advent of the sixteenth century, to cast aside this worn-out adornment and to grasp eagerly the offerings of the Renaissance. Tile makers of Sevilla, at first modifying the Muhammadan patterns of interlacery and stars by the addition of a conventionalized flower or acanthus leaf, later dis- carded entirely the geometrical formations. Although cuerda seca tiles continued in use, by the second half of the century a new technique caused the extinction of the old. This process, known to modern ceramists as cuenca, had a similar purpose to that of cuerda seca, namely, the prevention of coloured glazes from running and blurring. Instead of the design be- ing drawn with a "dry cord" outline, hollows with sharp Ei2i8 ridges separating them were pressed by moulds into TILE Sevilla the soft clay surface of the tile. The decoration of cer- Sixteenth century tain tiles, and they are of great rarity, is in relief. Such is the technique of a tile (El218) of early Renaissance design; on it the green, snaky bodies of two snarling, confronted dragons 125 HISPANIC SOCIETY with blue and white wings are supported on their intertwining tails. Their figures, in relief, act as barriers to the black, honey-coloured, and white glazes of the background. There are a few tiles which combine the processes of cuenca and relief. The shapes of cuenca tiles were either large squares, or ladrillos por tabla, rec- tangular slabs for the ceiling about the size of two large squares, or olambrillas, small squares used most frequently with bricks and unglazed tiles in pavements. No innovation added to the variety of glaze colours; gold and copper lustre, borrowed from the Valencian fábricas, decorated tiles with Renaissance designs. A number of metallic-lustred ladrillos por tabla from the Churches of Santiago and San Felipe, Carmona, belong to the Hispanic Society. Two shields (E1223-E1224), each composed of two tiles, are also painted with copper lustre; they are from the Convent of the Madre de Dios at Baena, built by the Count of Cabra in 1510. The É1223 TILE SHIELD arms stamped and painted upon them are the lion, the Sevilla castle, and the lilies belonging to La Cerda and the Early sixteenth century bands and At)e Maria carried by Mendoza, family names of the Count and his wife. Cuenca tiles were decorated with numerous variations of acanthus foliage, figs and pomegranates, urns topped by leafy plants, palmettes, scallop shells, and knotted garlands of ribbon. Little animal figures like those on the Pavilion of Charles the Fifth in the Alcázar, Sevilla, sometimes appear, and of these the Society owns an example. A complete motive is often formed by four square tiles or by two ceiling tiles; on them the design usually consists of circular, oval, octagonal, or star- shaped bands framing a central rosette or floral cluster. Many such patterns are represented in the Society's collection. One small olambrilla, a replica of others in the Pavilion of Charles the Fifth, is inscribed diagonally across its entire surface with the date 1343 in a cartouche. An impulse towards a broader development of ceramics was given to Spain by the Hispaniolized Italian, Francisco Niculoso. The date of his arrival at Sevilla was probably during the latter part of the fifteenth century, for he was well enough established by 1503 to make the tile sepulchre for Iñigo López in the Church of Santa Ana, Triana. Hailed with Sevilla acclaim and sponsored first by Sevilla, he Sixteenth was soon century to become the inspiration for potters of other Spanish towns. The new kind of pottery decoration was dubbed throughout the country pisano, and while it 126 CERAMICS did not entirely obliterate the cuerda seca and cuenca processes, it certainly took the place of importance in popularity. Panels decorated by Francisco Niculoso, who signed himself indiscrimi- nately Pisano and Italiano, were composed of many tiles, over the flat, enameled surface of which he drew his compositions, a technique brought from his native land. The subjects were scenes from religious stories, figures of saints, or effigies of the dead, surrounded by wide borders of such Renaissance motives as gro- tesques and masks, acanthus scrolls, griffins and sphinxes, urns, garlands, and cartouches. Bright yellow and orange had become added glaze colourings. The year after the completion of Iñigo López's sepulchre, Niculoso made that famous Retablo of the Visitation to adorn a chapel in the Alcázar. A doorway to the Church of Santa Paula he executed also in the same year, aided by the sculptor, Pedro Millan, who modeled the terra cotta reliefs of saints with garland frames, which Niculoso glazed and inserted among the tiles over the arch. Besides the Italian Niculoso and among the scores of ceramists flourishing during the sixteenth century at Sevilla was Pedro de Herrera, who learned his trade in the workshop of his father, Fernán Martínez Guijarro. There were, too, Francisco Andrea, a Fleming, and his pupil, Roque Hernández, and Cristóbal Augusta, the latter's son-in-law. Augusta, a Navarrese, is best known for his tile panelings, completed in 1577, for the walls of the Salons of Charles the Fifth in the Alcázar. Tomás de Pésaro, an Italian, rented the palatial home of Ferdinand Columbus and there established a pot- tery centre which his son Jusepe contin- ued to operate. Within the boundaries of Spain, from Granada at the south to El Justo near Bilbao in the north, Sevillian pottery was in demand. Even that leader of the pottery industry in the east, Valencia, called upon Sevilla for panels done in the novel pisano style. By the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury there began in Sevillian pottery a decadence which was to increase slowly with future years. Such beautiful com- positions as the dadoes by Augusta in TILE PANEL the Salons of Charles the Fifth, painted Sevilla in the Italian manner and filling entire Seventeenth century walls with their Renaissance fantasies, gave way to conventionalized repeat patterns. Drawn on a white ground in dark and light blue with touches of yellow and orange, the favourite motive was that of the nailhead and cartouche. Against exactly this kind of background were placed the small tile panels (El 310- El 311) now in the Society's collection, representations of Saint Dominic and E1311 127 HISPANIC SOCIETY Bishop Albert the Great of Ratisbon. Framed by scrolling bands of heavy strapwork with a pair of dogs seated in the lower corners of each panel and a winged angel's head at the centre top, the circular paintings depict the haloed Saint Dominic, holding an open book in his right hand and lilies in his left, and the mitred Albert in full bishop's garb with a closed missal and a crosier. Both panels are from the former Church of Regina Angelorum in the College of the Dominican Fathers, Sevilla. Seventeenth-century cuenca tiles, too, even though their designs remained the same, showed a carelessness in manufacture: glazes ran over their bounds into other cavities, and the colours, not so clear as formerly, became blurred; the moulds were not exact, and thus the patterns of a group of tiles would not match accurately. A reciprocity of trade marked the century; Sevilla imported the wares of Portugal, China, Holland, and Italy, while the products of other Spanish cities, Badajoz, Salvatierra, Puente del Arzobispo, and Talavera de la Reina, were sold in her markets. The porcelains and pottery of China were imitated by the Sevillian artisans, and Sevillian copies were made of plates, bowls, and other pottery objects from Talavera. An earlier contact between the ceramists of the two cities was made in 1566 when Jerónimo Montero, a Sevillian, was sent by Philip the Second to Talavera de la Reina to make examinations of clay and glazes employed by the Castillans. On occasion, the difficulty in distinguishing Sevillian from Talaveran pieces is well-nigh insurmountable. Variations in colours or in styles of painting are not true criteria. If any differences are to be found, they are in the white enamels and the clays. Not alone may it be said that Sevilla was influenced by the meth- ods of Talavera. The influence was indeed mutual, for the Andalusian city had been the home of Niculoso and other artisans whose work in the Italianate style had its effect on the Castillans. Traces of Niculoso's Renaissance mo- tives are indelibly intermingled with native Spanish designs in Talavera pot- tery. Vessels decorated with these scenes of the hunt and the bullfight ALBARELOS and with heraldic shields, bearing the Sevilla arms of family or of religious order, the Possibly seventeenth century Sevillians were eager to copy. Illustrative of this point are the alharelos, or drug jars, now belonging to the Hispanic Society, and formerly in various private pharmacies or the dispensaries of con- vents and monasteries. Coloured in light and dark blue on the white enamel ground, the arms of the Convents of San Francisco de Paula and of La Merced, E868 E810 128 CERAMICS Sevilla, pronounce the sources whence came two of these jars (E860, E868). A pair of drug jars (E810-E811) are painted in all the bright hues known to the Sevillian potter of the seventeenth century. Each has a slightly different design; beneath a scalloped arch a deer with proudly curved neck raises his prancing forefeet from the ground, and under the same kind of archway a seated hound throws back his head as though to bay. To all appearances, the pottery of Talavera de la Reina sprang fully de- veloped into being early in the sixteenth century. Nevertheless, this ware of sophisticated shapes and colourful designs had its antecedents, although they remain obscure. From ancient times pottery may have been a product of the Toledan town, and in later days Moors may have fashioned hollow vessels and tiles in true Muhammadan style, but of these facts there is uncertainty. Proof, however, of the existence of potters' kilns before the year 1521 lies in an ordinance of that date; it designates the periods during which the kilns could be fired, and these hours, the regulation reads, must conform to those set by the ancient laws. Faint vestiges of mudejar motives continue in the designs on certain six- teenth-century dishes of which the white surfaces are decorated with flowers and foliage, beasts and birds, painted in blue wash and orange hatchings ac- cented by manganese outlines. The almost he- raldic rendering of a lion and a crested bird on two plates is reminiscent of the Moorish-Gothic style of Valencia; the choice of colours, too, re- calls the blue and gold lustre adorning Moslem pottery. Across the centre of one dish (E805), the lion walks with upraised left forepaw, tail waving, and his tongue protruding. On the other plate (E806) a crested bird with sweeping tail feathers stands on long legs and outstretches flapping wings ; around the brim grow plants with curling E8o6 fronds. PLATE Not for the interpretation of traditional de- Talavera de la Reina Sixteenth century signs but for the propagation of a new style, that of the Italian Renaissance, did Talavera rise to fame in her own country and in foreign lands. Historians of the sixteenth century in describing the industries of Talavera sounded praises of her pottery. Garcia Fernandez wrote in 1536 that Talavera pottery glazed white, green, blue, and other colours was the best made in Castilla and that it spread through Castilla to Andalucía and Portugal and even traveled to the Indies. Within the last half of the century. Father Andrés de Torrejón, prior of the Convent of Santa Catalina at Talavera, visited a pottery factory. He described carefully each process of manufacture: prepara- tion of the clay, turning it on wheels, glazing and firing it in kilns. He even gave the number of fabrics in operation, but he named none of the artisans, he did not locate the sites of the workshops, nor did he refer to guilds, although, 129 HISPANIC SOCIETY Talavera de la Reina as in other pottery centres of Spain, the Talaverans probably leagued together. With the seventeenth century the pottery of Talavera reached its culmina- tion: the colouring was varied and pleasing to the eye; designs were nicely balanced and correctly drawn; shapes were varied without being too ornate. There emerged from the potters' hands vessels for every household purpose— whether solely decorative or utilitarian. Often they were extremely large, such as the covered jars standing about two feet high, huge hemispherical bowls, tall flowerpots, aguamaniles, and pitchers; while on a smaller scale were fash- ioned the goblets, inkwells, plates, glass racks, albarelos, gallipots, and ewers. The colouring of designs was sometimes done entirely in shades of grayish blue on the white enamel covering, or else a more naturalistic effect was obtained by the addition of greens, yellow, orange, purple, and brown. The Castillan workmen imitated with perfect skill the porcelanas of China, India, Portugal, and Pisa. An Oriental influence is distinctly apparent in many vessels from Talavera, certain of them being almost replicas of their Chinese or Indian prototypes. Somewhat modified in style are three tiles (E1316-E1318) with a suggestion of the Orient in their decorations of a gnarled tree, pagoda, herons, and a misshapen camel. Other pieces of pottery resemble attempts made by the potters of Delft, Holland, to depict Chinese scenes and patterns. A blue and white plate (E851) belonging to the Hispanic Society is illustrative of this variety. In the centre two swallows fly beneath a large flower nestled in a heavy cluster of foliage. Whereas certain vessels produced at Talavera are exact reproductions, others, inspired by the Italian wares, are none the less Spanish in feeling. Favourite adornments within the interiors of large bowls and on the sides of big vases were scenes of the bullfight. Many are the examples of the toreros on spirited horses ready to kill the bulls by plunging long-handled lances into their withers; or the fighters are shown afoot waving bright-coloured capes before the charging ani- mals. Painted inside a bowl (E820), given to the Society by the painter Sorolla, is an incident not often portrayed—el encierro, or the round-up of bulls when they are brought from the fields to the ring. Two 130 CERAMICS horsemen armed with goads ride along with a bull which is led by two bell oxen. Hunting scenes as decorations on the pottery of Talavera include horsemen hurling spears at leopards and lions, or chasing their prey with hounds, trout fishing, and trapping wild boars in a net. A lull in the chase has been drawn on one side of a covered jar (E818); two hunts- men, one of whom with a dog at his heels carries a gun, are earnestly conversing, while a third holds a restless horse. Painted in deep violet blues and shad- owy greens around another jar (E819) is an enchanted forest with a dragon, breathing smoke and flames. He has coiled himself around a clump of trees not far behind an archer aiming his arrow at an unwary deer, which stands scratch- BOWL Talavera de la ing its Reina ear with a hind foot. Seventeenth century In a setting of trees and foliage, simpler designs of single figures—flowers, birds, animals of every kind, human and saintly beings—were usual. People were not infrequently portrayed in less violent pursuits than the chase—dancing, conversing, or listening to music. Decorative adjuncts included, curiously enough, representations of laces, copied from guipure laces of the late seven- teenth to early eighteenth century. The patterns, common in Castilla at the time, can be distinguished as Almagro, Manzanares, and Talavera. Architecture, too, had a place among adornments', the important designs of many pieces being the baroque castles and churches of Spain. That Talavera pottery was used in the Escorial is indicated by the vases, plates, and drug jars, one of which belongs to the Hispanic Society, bearing two escutcheons with the grid of Saint Laurence and the lion rampant of the Jeronimite order. The arms belonging E886 to other ALBARELOS religious orders are found on Talavera de la Reina a plate and albarelos with the insignia Seventeenth century of the Barefooted Carmelites and the Order of La Merced, as well as several albarelos with the arms of the Domini- cans (E885-E886, E888-E889), which were presented to the Society in 1923 131 HISPANIC SOCIETY COVERED JAR Talavera de la Reina Seventeenth century 132 CERAMICS by King Alfonso the Thirteenth. Personal coats of arms were painted on innumerable vessels, principally dishes, and of these the Society has a plate (E854) with a central shield mantled by an elab- orate lambrequin and the name D. Diego de Ledesma Núñez de Prado encircling the brim. On many pieces names of owners appeared, and on pharmacy jars the names of the drugs which were contained within. Other inscriptions, such as the Biha Jesus on a bowl (E815), although not lacking on seventeenth-century pottery, became more popular with the passing years. To separate the pottery of Talavera from that of Toledo, Puente del Arzobispo, and other E8S4 towns within the province is difficult. Sixteenth- PLATE century tiles of Moorish design and of Talavera de la Reina cuenca Eighteenth century technique have been traced to Toledo, and docu- mentary evidence proves the existence of potters, whose predecessors were the Muhammadans, from the sixteenth through the eighteenth century. Two potters of Toledo, Nicolas Gutiérrez and Francisco Sanchez, were commissioned in June 1543 to make and lay a tile pavement at Madrid in the chapel of Gutierre de Carvajal, bishop of Plasència. Pisano tiles were not generally made by Toledan potters until the eighteenth century, but, decorating walls in the Generalidad, Valencia, are sixteenth-century panels in this technique, bearing the inscription: en T° Oliva: inueñt. When García Fernández wrote in 1536 that the pottery of Talavera de la Reina was exported to the Indies, he doubtlessly meant the term to include Mexico. That Spain would send such household furnishings as glazed pottery to a possession in the Western World during the early years of its colonization seems but natural, especially since glazing was at the time unknown to the natives. Legend attributes to the Dominican Brotherhood the introduction of Spanish master potters into Mexico, and uncertainty veils the exact year in which the Spaniards taught the nimble-fingered Indians how to use glazes made from tin and lead compounds. Evidently, by the end of the sixteenth century the Indians covered their pottery with glaze or enamel, for Fray Jerónomo de Mendieta wrote in 1596 that the natives soon learned the art of glazing from the first craftsmen to come from Spain, despite efforts to guard the secret. Since the first potters to manufacture glazed ware in Mexico were from Talavera, the pieces which they created were Spanish in character. With dif- ferent raw materials—the clays and the constituents of the glazes—they en- deavoured to produce replicas of the wares which they had fashioned in their homeland. Glazed bowls, pitchers, basins, and plates stocked kitchens and dining rooms. A flowerpot (E987), with tall sides flaring from a rotund body and with blue floral decorations, is similar to those which abounded in the halls 133 HISPANIC SOCIETY and patios of Mexican homes, and a little inkwell (E985) was one of the many to ornament the writing tables of colonial families. Drug jars, called in Mexico canillas, were made for the apothecaries' shops, and of these the Hispanic Society has various examples. Although the laws, drawn up in 1653, for the potters' guild at Puebla specified that designs be painted in "all five colours used in the art", the early pieces of Mexican glazed pottery were generally painted in shades of blue on a white tin-enameled ground, the colour being applied in "tattoo" or in silhouette style. In the former technique, the outline designs were filled with large FLOWERPOT blue dots and irregular splashes, while in Puebla, Mexico the silhouette method the spaces surrounded Eighteenth century by line drawings were painted in solid dark blue. The thick blue glaze often stands out in relief against the white back- ground. That the influence of China was felt in the pottery workshops of seventeenth- century Mexico is proved by the guild laws. There it is stated that in order to give variety to fine pottery, the colouring should be in imitation of Chinese wares. The Mexican interpretation was usually in thin, flat colour, applied lightly and painted in shades of blue. The influence of the great Asiatic country on Mexico may be laid not to the Chinese potters themselves, but to their porcelains that, having traveled to the west coast of the New World, were transported cross-country either for purchase by wealthy Hispano-Mexicans or for ship- ment to Spain. The large vase shaped like an inverted pear with narrow collar and campan- iform cover was a favourite model, as were jars topped with iron lids. These receptacles for ginger and other precious spices were copied as containers for Mexican chocolate and vanilla beans; such a jar (E994) with FOUNTAIN iron top, hinged lock, and tiny Puebla, Mexico key has painted decorations of Seventeenth century dark blue and white rosettes within irregular-shaped medallions. Glazed pot- 134 CERAMICS tery barrels, probably used as flowerpots, were also copies of porcelain. A barrel vase (E990), the motives done in "tattoo" style, proclaims China as the inspiration of its design; around the sides, on a background of dots and flow- ering vines, birds fly, animals leap and prance, and little Eastern figures pro- gress, one swinging a scimitar at a charg- ing lion, another dancing, and still an- other bearing a parasol. European figures combined with Chinese motives, white medallions with conventionalized floral designs, and white figures reserved on a blue ground attempt to simulate the Oriental in Mexican pottery. Essentially Spanish in feeling, yet vaguely suggestive of the Chinese, is a fountain (E989), coloured in light and dark blues, in the Hispanic Museum. Around the outer surface of its octofoil basin, birds with long necks and Mexico sweep- Puebla, Seventeenth ing tail feathers flash through century cactus plants and lush, semitropical foliage, while parrakeets, perching on branches, turn their heads restlessly. A fluted column, rising from the centre of the basin, holds aloft a scalloped bowl painted with blossoms. Set in the midst of a patio, the fountain dripped water from its bowl down to sparkle against the uneven white surface of the basin. The guild laws of Puebla from 1653 to 1676 required all pottery to be marked with a distinguishing stamp or monogram. Why so few extant pieces have signatures remains a question inadequately answered. In the Hispanic Society's collection there are two tiles and an ovoid vase which show potters' marks. The vase (E991) is ornamented with Oriental figures in attitudes of violent action and, on opposite sides, with two-horsed chariots drawing ladies holding parasols. Near the base of the vase and below one of the chariots are traced in blue glaze the letters h e. The tiles (E1329-E1330) are both slightly convex, a character- istic of examples facing the architectural members of countless churches, civil and private buildings in Mexico. On both tiles are represented figures in European costume of the seventeenth century amid floral designs painted in the Chinese mode. One azulejo is marked with a blue capital F, the other with a blue insect, like a bee, in flight. The first fifty years of the nineteenth century saw the unfolding of a native style at Puebla. Gaudy hues of green, yellow, red, and brown took their places beside the shades of blue, and a mauve, or purplish rose, was added to the potters' colour scheme. Spanish designs were almost forgotten, and the Chinese 135 HISPANIC SOCIETY TILES Puebla, Mexico Seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries element disappeared. Among the remaining articles of household equipment are large circular dishes, flower vases, bowls, and holy-water stoups. Of this classification is a salt cellar formed like a cylinder which spreads at the base and rests on three scroll feet. The design, a highly conventionalized floral pattern, is delicately painted in red, green, and black. While the Mexican Indians were being taught the art of glazing, another pottery fell under the sway of Talavera de la Reina. Cataluña, having once chosen Valencia as her guide in the ceramic art, turned in the late sixteenth century to Talavera and Sevilla. Within the next hundred years, several towns of the province were making objects for domestic purposes, as well as tiles for the walls of churches, civic buildings, and homes. Coloured blue,Ey1e3llo3w6, green, E1337 E1338 orange, and brown, theEtIi3le3Spanels were, like their Sevillian and Talaveran models, representations of the lives of saints, the Virgin and Child, and scenes of the Passion, bordered by conventional patterns or floral motives. Tiles illus- trating the craftsman and the labourer at their tasks made a first appearance at this time. Two examples from Barcelona in the Society's collection form an interesting com- parison to models of the following century. Hoi- low ware was covered with thick tin enamel, and on it the decorations were generally painted in dark gray blue. Men and women dressed in the mode of King Charles the Second, animals, birds, large stylized flowers, and coats of arms were all favoured as ornamentation. A change in the appearance of Catalan pot- tery by the mid-eighteenth century may be at- tributed to the finer, lighter quality of the enamel and the clearer, brighter blue used in the deco- rations. The subjects, showing French influence, were somewhat different; painted in less ponderous manner were figures clad in the fashion of the day, ships, landscapes, and architecture. A tazza (E853) in the Society's collection is characteristic of this eighteenth-century product. The slightly concave bowl, resting on a low foot, is delicately 136 CERAMICS painted in shades of blue, with two birds flying on graceful wings above a lattice. Tile panels with religious themes continued to be made and, during this period, tiles depicting the arts and crafts, rajoles d'aris y oficis, gained increas- ing favour with the populace. On many of the ex- amples in the Hispanic Museum are seen, in natural- istic colouring, artisans plying their trades, dancers, bullfighters, and carnival revelers, soldiers and mu- sicians. Others display flora and fauna, imaginary creatures, foodstuffs, and household implements. Taken as a group, these rajoles record with minute details life in Cataluña during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. TILE Cataluña The ascent of Philip the Fifth, a Frenchman, to Eighteenth century the throne of Spain in 1700 caused a change in national taste. Affected radically, as were all the arts and crafts of the country, the pottery vessels of Talavera and Sevilla were no longer acclaimed as the standards of beauty. While the manufacture of glazed earthenware continued in both cities, still, a slow decline in its quality was obvious. The colours be- came pale and muddy, and the designs known as montería showed an utter disregard for correct proportions and drawing. An eighteenth-century pitcher (E821) with blunt spout and twisted handle is well drawn but tinted gray blue, olive green, and dull orange. The inscription around the collar pro- nounces the owner's name, and on the rotund body of the vessel a cartouche draped with banners de- dares him to have been a member of the Cofradía sacramental de San Sebas- tiân de Madrid in 1760. The founding of the manufactory at Alcora in PITCHER 1727 by the Count of Talavera de la Reina Aranda undermined the Eighteenth century last strains of popularity left to Talaveran and Sevillian wares. The designs and shapes of their pottery and also that of Cataluña reproduced Alcora patterns. The connection between Talavera and the Valencian town was especially close, since José Causada, a worker from the Alcora fabric, went to Talavera in 1750, taking with hirti, no doubt, knowledge of technical processes, of designs and coloured glazes. The rocaille brim and the central design on an oval Talavera platter (E871) are % E821 137 HISPANIC SOCIETY illustrative of the resemblance between products of the two towns. The rococo fountain and the tall fruit tree beside it, as well as the bright-hued floral sprays around the brim, are direct copies of the work done at Alcora. Memy fantastic little beasts, presumable attempts to re- produce the fauna of Alcora ware, were made at Talavera towards the last of the eighteenth century. Of this variety are three lion incense burners (E812-E8I4) in the Society's collection. The potters of Alcora were already proficient in the creating of crude earth- enware when Don Pedro Alcántara Buenaventura Abarca de Bolea, ninth PLATTER Talavera de la Reina count of Aranda, resolved to found there Eighteenth century a large manufactory of fine pottery. Workshops were completed and opened, and the townspeople were urged to learn the arts of the wheel and of glazing from the masters Edouard Roux and Joseph Olerys. These ceramists were brought by the Count from Moustiers, for this Provençal town was considered the producer of the best glazed pottery in France. More Frenchmen migrated to Alcora, and, working as their equals, might have been found their former Spanish pupils, Miguel Soliva, José Ochando, and others. With such close relationship between Alcora and Moustiers, it is little wonder that the early methods and designs of the Spanish factory can jmI scarcely be distinguished from those of the French. Made of enameled earthenware were all W manner of plates and salvers, bowls and saucers ^^0 for chocolate cups, tall pyramidal table decora- ■ frl,. tions and plaques for wall ornamentation with edges moulded as frames. Bordering the brims of HK plates or edging the principal designs were deli- ^|||| cate and minute patterns of flowers and foliage scrolls like point lace. Centres of dishes and iHHHHHHHHHhII plaques were limned with naturalistic scenes of INCENSE BURNER allegorical, mythological, or religious subjects. Talavera de la Reina The life of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints Eighteenth century also furnished subjects for tiles and tile panels inserted in the walls of monas- teries, convents, and churches. Saint Joseph holding the Christ Child is painted with a ring of clouds and little angel heads on a tile (El319) which dates from this first period of the Alcora factory. Above the purple and brown-clad Saint Joseph, the Dove spreads white wings in the golden rays emanating from the saint. At his feet a blue and purple-winged cherub, draped in rose, points to the 138 CERAMICS flowering staff supported by a cherub with violet wings, swathed in bright blue. The traceried patterns of certain Alcora vessels are reminiscent of those decorating French textiles; the rendering of colourful floral sprays in almost naturalistic style was interspersed with little figures of Oriental aspect. Upon close examination, the animals and fancifully clad human beings are discovered in odd poses with the long, furry ears of Puck or with leaves sprouting from their heads. Although no such creatures are seen in the chocolate cup belonging to the Hispanic Society, the minuteness of the architecture, the manner in which flowers and fruits are painted, and the banana tree, like a tall umbrella shading the house, classify the design as chinoiserie. Garlands and a network of curling stems supporting grotesque figures and animals, cupids and caryatids, sphinxes, masks, and urns of flowers took their inspiration from the designs of Jean Bérain. Rocaille motives became increasingly predominant not only in the painted patterns but also in the shapes of vessels. The continuous manufacture of glazed pottery at Alcora was interrupted in 1751 with the initial introduction of porcelain making to Spain by a new overlord of the factory. Don Pedro Pablo, who as a young man of thirty sue- ceeded his father to the title of Aranda in 1749, contracted with François Haly to make porcelain and to teach his methods to the workmen at Alcora. Later, other experts in its fabrication, Knipffer and Cloostermans, sought to improve the proc- esses. Glazed earthenware was not, however, completely abandoned, for table services, figurines, and bust portraits testify to its con- tinned use. Exactly when the pottery bust of Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea Jiménez de Urrea (E879) was sculptured is not known; the mould for it exists at the factory to this day. Represented as a man in his late forties, he wears the chain and emblem of the Golden Fleece which had been conferred upon him about 1756. He is portrayed as a smooth- shaven man in powdered wig, with blue eyes. He wears a dark blue cuirass over which is draped a yellowish brown robe lined with COUNT OF ARANDA ermine. Alcora, Valencia The gallant soldier, courtier, and diplomat Eighteenth century died in 1798, leaving his pottery manufactory to the Duke of Hijar, his nearest relative. It was not until 1858 that the fabric passed from the house of Hijar to Ramón Girona, a Catalan manufacturer. Girona dying nearly forty years later, the pottery became the possession of Cristóbal Aicart whose heirs sold everything of value that remained in the factory buildings. While the Dukes of Hijar were proprietors of the Alcora factory, a new E879 139 HISPANIC SOCIETY kind of ware was inspired by England. Like the pottery of Leeds, it was made of pipe clay and covered with lead glaze. From this terra de pipa was fashioned a group, entitled Lion Attacking a Prostrate Ox which belongs to the Hispanic Society. With the destruction of the royal factory at Buen Retiro, the artisans scat- tered to various other fabrics in Spain. Two of them, Luis Pogeti and Domingo Palmerani, found their way in 1815 to Alcora, which remained safe from in- vasion, high among its secluded hills. Pogeti and Palmerani distinguished them- selves at their retreat, having brought with them the styles of the royal por- celain works. At this period, so close was the resemblance of Alcora to Buen Retiro products that it is difficult to tell the difference between them. His German bride's dowry of Meissen porcelain was, perhaps, the inspira- tion for Charles, King of Naples and Sicily, to establish within the palace gardens the first workshop at Naples for porcelain manufacture. So pleased was he with the fruit of this venture that in 1743 he had a factory built in the park of Capodimonte. Such objects as cups, saucers, sugar bowls, and snuffboxes emerged from the Neapolitan fabric, along with or- namental pieces—white or tinted statuettes and highly coloured groups of larger figures. José Gricci, the first sculptor allied with the Capodimonte factory, is recorded as having modeled re- ligious, mythological, and popular subjects. When Charles fell heir to the crown of Spain in 1759, enthu- siast that he was for his Royal Porcelain Factory, he refused to leave it behind him. Gathering machinery, tools, materials, and the best workmen, he had them transported to Madrid. There, not far from the Royal Palace, he chose for the new factory building a spot in the gardens of El Buen Retiro, reminiscent of the environs at Capodimonte. Under the direction of José Gricci, the manufactory commenced operating in 1760, producing ornamental objects and table services of artificial soft paste in the Neapolitan style. Gricci and his successors followed closely in this tradition for over forty years. Upon the death of the first director in 1770, Carlos Schepers was appointed to take his place. Of Saxon descent, Carlos was the grandson of Livio Schepers who had imported the Meissen processes to the newly founded Capodimonte factory. Carlos and Felipe Gricci, sons of José, became the direc- tors of the Buen Retiro factory from the death of Schepers in 1783 until Felipe's demise in 1803. The products of the Buen Retiro factory throughout this first and longest 140 CERAMICS period of manufacture were, due to the soft paste, principally sculptural. One of the first examples of Gricci's work on Spanish soil was the Porcelain Room at the Aranjuez Palace, made of paste brought from Naples. He signed in 1763 as having designed and modeled the panels of Chinese figures in high relief which, together with mirrors, cover the entire surfaces of the walls. Not long afterwards a room in the Royal Palace at Madrid was decorated with porcelain reliefs. Free-standing statue groups, varying in size and tinted with coloured glazes, date from the early years of the Spanish Royal Porcelain Factory.Their subjects are mythological or allegorical characters and figures in contemporary Spanish or foreign costumes. A statu- ette (E3019) belonging to the Hispanic Society has been called Summer and Autumn; the two little fig- comfit box ures standing beside an altar may represent Ceres with po·'ceiain her sheaf of wheat and Bacchus squeezing bunch Eighteenth century a of grapes into a vase. A charming comfit box (E3018) is formed with a girl bending over the half-opened lid of an urn, beside which she is sitting; her costume, white touched with gold, bespeaks its origin as in those worn by women disporting themselves at the country jetes painted by Watteau and his pupil Lancret. Each of the pieces bears the blue fleur-de-lis, the mark of the fabric. Conch shells, scallops, snails, and crustaceans—motives beloved by the Neapolitan ceramists—were borrowed by the artists of Buen Retiro and com- bined with French rocaille forms and scrolls. - — ... This combination may be observed in a fig- ure. Boy with a Falcon (E3025). The plump child holds up a falcon on his left hand and encircles with his right arm a yellow conch shell, within which are painted bits of coral, snails, and other tiny sea creatures; he is seated on a rock edged by rococo scrolls. The initials F. F. scratched underneath the statue and the blue painted fleur-de-lis may indicate that it was made at the Buen Retiro works by Felipe Fumo or Fernando Frate. Numerous artists of both Capodimonte and Buen Retiro used the theme of nude boys playing with a goat. The Hispanic Society's ^ example of Three Boys and a Goat (E3026) three boys and a goat laughing, brown-haired baby Buen Retiro portrays one porcelain ^ 00» J Eighteenth century With an arm thrown across the withers of a shaggy white goat, another balances uncertainly astride its back, while his 141 HISPANIC SOCIETY companion helps to steady him. All these small figures from the Buen Retiro factory are graceful and vigorous, with animation in their attitudes and vivac- ity in their expressions. The style of the Neapolitan manufactory is evident in two urn-shaped vases (E3022-E3023); the bodies are white, each having two golden handles modeled to represent heavy grape stalks. From them grow vines, autumnal leaves, and purple, green, and white grapes. The vases are marked on the base with the fleur-de-lis of the fabric. Similarly marked, eight plates decorated with a Chinese floral pattern in bright colours and gilt are representative of the few utilitarian objects made in the first period of Buen Retiro porcelain the factory. Eighteenth century While Charles the Third was still King of Naples and Sicily, he had become interested in the discoveries at Pompeii and had ordered excavations to be made. The objects found buried there and at Her- culaneum aroused general enthusiasm for classical art. An echo of this ancient Roman art may be detected in two candelabra (E3020-E3021 ) and a covered urn. The column of each candelabrum supports a slender porcelain pyramid from the base of which branch three ormolu arms terminating in sockets with porcelain drips. The pyramids are delicately painted with classic urns, swags, and acanthus scrolls in soft shades of rose, green, blue, and yellow. Jupiter Fulminator is represented on one column and, on the other, a faun playing his pipes; acanthus scrolls framing oval miniatures of men and women complete the decoration on the columns. King Charles had intended the products of the Buen Retiro factory to be solely for the use of the royal family, but the cost of operation was mount- ing rapidly. In order to defray expenses, he decreed just before his death that a retail porcelain shop be opened at Madrid. Since most of the products were purely ornamental, high priced, and of a paste that broke easily, the sales were disappointing. Charles the Fourth was impressed with the necessity of find- ing a better paste. Thus it was that he sent Bartolomé Sureda, a promising young student, to Paris in 1802 E3020 CANDELABRUM to investigate the porcelain of Sèvres. Buen Retiro porcelain Eighteenth century Felipe Gricci died the following year, whereupon Sureda was recalled to Spain to put in practice the knowledge he had acquired. His first efforts were to search the country for the materials needed to make true porcelain. The feldspar was discovered, but meerschaum {espuma de mar) 142 CERAMICS was substituted for kaolin. The new hard paste was a great success, and with this improvement the Buen Retiro factory could turn out porcelain that ranked favourably with foreign products. But the glory was to be short lived. With the capture of Madrid in 1808 by the French during the War of Independence, the manufactory was partially destroyed; four years later the English gave the finishing stroke by burning it to the ground. The nineteenth century was not destined to be a distinguished era of pot- tery fabrication, not even in Valencia where once there had been feverish ac- tivity among the potters in turning out handsome, gold- lustred products. A popular variety of bright-coloured dishes was, however, made for local consumption. The introduction of this polychrome ware to the stronghold of blue and golden pottery of Moorish design probably dates back to the first pisano tiles from Sevilla. By the seventeenth century, coloured glazes were commonly used for plates, deep dishes, and other pieces of hollow ware, and within the next hundred years tiles like the rajoles d'oficis of Cataluña and like the contemporary products of Alcora were seen in abundance. Closely akin to these tiles with their representations of daily activities and of household objects is the gayly ALBARELO tinted pottery of the late Manises eighteenth and nineteenth centu- Probably Eighteenth century ries, examples of which belong to the Society's collection. An albarelo (E870) and two holy-water stoups (E846-E847) are the earliest pieces in this group of popular ware. Like others of its kind, a plate (El058) may have been used at the wedding feast of a Valencian bride. Painted over its white enameled surface is a blue, yellow, and green urn bearing a cluster of orange, yellow, and blue flowers and their green foliage. Other platos de boda were ornamented with portraits of the bride and the groom, with their initials, and with drawings of the jewels, trinkets, and wed- ding finery, given by the fiance to his beloved. Such a plate was passed at the celebration from guest to guest for each to drop into it a gold coin. From similarly decorated pitchers or jugs was poured the wine to toast the health of the newly wedded pair. Bonded by similar technical processes to ElOsS PLATE the humbler and commercial wares of twentieth- Valencia century Spain, the work of an increasing num- Late eighteenth century her of ceramists has revealed its worth through artistry and the creators' trium- phant solutions of chemico-ceramic problems. Two interests, as is shown by their work, concern these potters—decoration and form. To Daniel Zuloaga and his 143 HISPANIC SOCIETY children, who have continued his work at Segovia, decoration is paramount. On their glazed pottery which is painted in bright colours, gold lustre, and pearly iridescence in the cuenca or cuerda seca manner are displayed Castilian peasants against the architecture of Segovia or the arid plains of Castilla. A vase im- pressed with Daniel Zuloaga's name is ornamented by a black-garbed man on his burro under an arcade with golden columns. The sunny, brown cathe- dral and houses of the town and the grayish stones of the Roman aqueduct form the setting beneath an intensely blue sky. The Catalan artists, Aragay and Guardiola, have interested themselves principally in the decoration of pottery. Guardiola only recently having experi- mented with stoneware and porcelain. Francesc Quer, teacher of both these men, of Josep Llorens Artigas, and many other Catalan ceramists, worked in hard-fired stoneware when he could find time from his innumerable industrial projects. Llorens Artigas, now internationally recognized, has fol- lowed his master in his devotion to stoneware, de- pending solely for its ornamentation on countless rich-hued or delicate glazes. Little known outside of Spain is the Catalan J. Roig, a skillful potter-decorator. With the sign of a hand and the initials J. R. G. he has marked a plate (El 057) exhibited at the Hispanic Museum. The simple floral pattern is painted in bright blue and green on creamy white tin enamel. A Valencian, Antonio Peyró Mezquita, has become prominent in his native land and also in foreign countries. All types of pottery are formed by his adroit fingers—from tiles, jars, vases, and tea services to copies of well- known paintings, done in coloured glazes, and the graceful statuettes for which he is especially famed. He has made portrait stud- ies in bas-relief, not only of King Alfonso and Queen Victoria Eugenia, but also of Primo de Rivera, the Duke of Alba, the Count of Romanones, as well as many other personages renowned in the arts, politics, and sports. Peyró's work is usually in glazed terra cotta, but he has experimented with stoneware. ANTONIO PEYRO MEZQUITA His model for a statuette (El010) belong- Old Woman with Rosary ing to the Society was an old woman seated in an armchair, clasping a rosary, her bowed head draped with a black covering. From beneath the dark head covering hangs the tan fringe of a bright yellow Eioio 144 CERAMICS shawl embroidered with raspberry red flowers and emerald green foliage. Her full skirt of crossbarred material shades from cerulean to a dark peacock blue at the hem. It is through his lively little statues of pretty young girls that Peyró has appealed to an admiring public. His first figures were representations of the gay Valencian with her voluminous skirt of flowery silk and her sparkling jewelry. In more recent years his scope has broadened to include the beauties of many provinces in their native costumes, executed with careful detail and in rich, gleaming colours. Aside from any aesthetic values which may be claimed for these realistic figures, they unquestionably have great folkloric interest, depicting, as they do, the rapidly vanishing provincial costumes of Spain. In the small towns and villages of every province until recent years, potters busily turned on their wheels the traditional objects demanded by a local clien- tele. There are the tin-enameled pieces produced in the Basque provinces, at Teruel and Muel in Aragón, and at Granada; the more sophisticated work of Manises, Sevilla, Talavera, and Toledo; and, finally, earthenware. The pottery of the Basques, as depicted by native modern painters, is fast disappearing. Pitchers and beakers of pinkish clay covered with a plain, milk- white tin enamel are still encountered, but the water jars shaped like huge teapots are seldom seen. At Teruel, the Moorish tradition lingered even into the twentieth century, the pottery shops offering for sale bowls and apothecaries' mortars which are replicas of sixteenth-century models; their green and man- ganese-brown decorations are painted on a white enameled ground. A once thriving industry at Muel has dwindled from the glorious years of the sixteenth century to the present, when but one potter follows the trade. In his workshop-cave he shapes pitchers, bowls, children's toys, and tiles, covers them with tin enamel, and skillfully draws on them, in many-coloured glazes, his original designs or those handed down by his forefathers. Several pieces, now in the Hispanic Museum, came from his pottery, among them a set of four tiles (El045) on which is painted the coat of arms of Muel. The potters of Granada grouped in the Fajalauza quarter of the Albaicin continue to fashion domestic pottery like that of their six- teenth or seventeenth-century ancestors. Gray white tin E1053 enamel covers the vessels of which there is a profusion of PITCHER Granada shapes and To Fajalauza, sizes. the Hispanic Society belong several Twentieth century examples of this ware with its lavish blue and green designs nearly filling the entire surface of each object; birds, pomegranates, flowers, and foliage are the popular motives. Copies of gold-lustred Hispano-Moresque pottery and of the polychrome wares of Cataluña, Talavera, and Sevilla are the products of the commercial establishments of modern Manises. Valencian manufacturers bought the secret process for making lustre from a native potter at the end of the past century, 145 HISPANIC SOCIETY built a factory at Manises, and proposed reproducing the ohra dorada of the Moors. Toledan pottery of Moorish de- sign and colouring has been revived during the twentieth century by Se- hastian Aguado. A small vase (El059) from Toledo in the Hispanic Museum is decorated with Arabic leaf motives in cuerda seca style. At Sevilla the re- vival of pottery making was begun in the mid-nineteenth century by Manuel Soto y Tello. An increasing number of ceramists have become interested in per- E1107 PLATTER fecting the old processes and copying Talavera de la Reina designs which have furnished a basis Twentieth century for modern polychrome pottery. On the vessels in the Museum are drawn montería and other designs which, in the seventeenth and eighteenth-century Sevillian ware, so closely resembled those of Talavera. By the end of the nineteenth century only a common, inexpensive ware was the output of the once far-famed Talavera de la Reina. Enrique Guijo, who had studied ceram- ics at Sevilla, conceived the idea of designing pot- tery after the fashion of Talavera's beautiful seven- teenth-century examples. Upon seeing Guijo's works, Juan Ruiz de Luna, a photographer and artist, agreed in 1908 to form a company with him. The factory, EÏ138 LUIS VENTOSA under the direction of Señor Ruiz de Luna, has ENRIQUE won Plate acclaim throughout Spain and foreign countries. Of the pieces in the collection two are of especial interest: a platter (El 107), which comes close to being a replica of an eighteenth- century platter (E871), also in the possession of the Hispanic Society, and a plate (El 124) with a scene from Don Quixote, presented to the Society by Señor Guijo. A similar revival came at the beginning of the century to the pottery of Puebla, Mexico. Enrique Luis Ventosa, a native of Barcelona, establishing his residence in Mexico, sought to improve tech- L E113P nicalities and to renew interest in decorations used ENRIQUE LUIS VENTOSA when the pottery was in its prime. Two pieces, a Plaque plate (Ell38) and a plaque (Ell39), painted in blue and mustard yellow, illustrate Ventosa's skill in the interpretation of old designs and forms. Certain towns have gained a reputation throughout Spain for their earth- 146 CERAMICS enware products, one of them being Breda in Cataluña. From there come ollas of reddish brown clay covered with shiny "alcohol," or lead glaze, like the flat baking dish and the deep stew pots exhibited at the Hispanic Society. Splashes of green and black colouring, a crude attempt at ornamentation, may be seen on the jugs, bowls, chocolate pot, and water jars from Naval, also in Cataluña, and from the Aragonese villages of Alpartir de la Sierra and Lumpiaque. Betanzos, Buño, and other Galician towns have contributed to the Society's collection of earthenware. Bowls, glazed canary yel- low with daubs of emerald green, and water jars of light clay with a translucent apple-green covering are characteristic of the province of Valencia. The two- handled vases of inverted pear shape with tall, nar- row collars are most common, but water containers in odd forms such as the rooster jug, or pollastre (El035), from Segorbe are occasionally found. Stenciled decoration of white slip under the trans- parent lead glaze is another form of embellishment. E1035 POLLASTRE The name of the pottery fabric is written in slip Segorbe, Valencia around the body of a large jar from Naval. A Twentieth century bowl (El 122) from Ubeda in the Andalusian province of Jaén has a chicken drawn at the centre and the sides decorated with radiating zigzag lines and an edging of scallops. That pottery decoration of this kind was used at Ubeda in the mid- nineteenth century is proved by a covered bowl (El 123) with the letters V. Y. II. beneath a royal crown, applied in slip to the interior. This cryptogram symbolizes the phrase. Viva Ysabel II. Lérida and Fraga are represented in the Society's collection by an interesting group of unglazed water jars, their pink and cream sides decorated with simple grayish brown line de- signs. Valued lightly because of their abundance and their low price, the kitchen utensils of un- glazed or transparent-glazed earthenware would have remained unrecorded had it not been for artists who prove that this kind of pottery was in use at least three centuries E1123 ago. Velazquez, COVERED BOWL devoting his early efforts to the painting of Ubeda kitchen scenes, has immortalized earthenware 1833-1868 in the composition. Old Woman Frying Eggs. Zurbarán has made illustrious the ordinary kitchen ware in portrayals of the patron saints of Sevilla, Saint Rufina who holds stacked plates and bowls and 147 HISPANIC SOCIETY Saint Justa from whose hand hang a jar and a pitcher. Murillo frequently placed on his canvases, near groups of beggars and paupers, large Sevillian water jars, their unglazed sides of precisely the same shape as those still seen in Andalusian towns. The group of Rebecca and Eliezer—young women filling their water jars while one offers a drink to a thirsty man—is a scene enacted to the present day at every fountain in southern Spain. A. W. F. GLASS - ■<"« «-r-JH-^WIT" •vvn·^·^ —'*r-TTX "T ïTJr" -.'--«!■ V - .f't-' \ ^Cc <■ ^ >Ç /'^í'v' ■- • • •':.·yM,<':V:í>..'i·?."*S s - M V : :,^e; . â^tïï^ ^'wh. >1^'^ V V 53v "tïft·'fii 1^ ^ . »Â Ir-.^-,, ' 7 *■ 'X^*" jfii'" V s"! < - J^* i2i'-»i'(.^í. ■'^¿'' - ■ ~v, r/ ' ii -t - ~i. , ''"iX·· /"^' ' "'í'íí·^ *- tf. «»■ «wSÎ ^ W Sr^4 ^ ^ . tv.,.,.. m... .xXvij,.4^,>,..;".^t..u. , ÍLfv&'^¿„ ■^^51 rrl·>-47-f·4»p,íf pp!., íSíí-S^^Bsi R\v»-«4í^«- "■!> fi, i-?;i#-"^v>'.« '· ^ ^"i," ,ií ^ V . ·í,■·«-í;·*^_«··X·a·iii*-"à®-·#·%ïl '. • V" í láí' -s^»? s„ -'y," x4^5.:{c,i.-,.",- WHEN came the small perfume vials and ointment jars of glass paste whicCh Eflooded the marts of Mediterranean countries for several hundreds of years previous to the Roman domination? Claims have been made for Egypt of the Eighteenth Dynasty as the source of these vessels with their ornamenta- tion of vari-coloured stripes, zigzags, and undulations molten into the turquoise blue, green, or reddish brown paste. This type of glass was later carried, un- IV doubtedly by the Phoenicians, from Egypt to the Greek islands of Cyprus and Rhodes and the colonies in Italy. Gradually, Grecian shapes supplanted the Egyptian, and such vessels, whether made in Egypt or within Greek territory, found their way to the Balearic Islands and to Spain. Several ungüentarla in the forms of alabastra and tiny amphorae, now in the Amatller and Macaya Col- lections, Barcelona, and in the Gerona Museum, were brought from graves uncovered at Ampurias, the Greek colony of Emporion. Because one of the pieces was found still containing the clay core around which it was shaped and fired, the suggestion has been made that it proves the existence of a local manu- factory. Other and similar vessels of glass paste were excavated from sites in the provinces of Almería and Cuenca. Akin to the ointment jars and bottles of small dimension are the larger vessels found in Almería, at Burgo de Osma in Castilla, and at Ampurias. The majority are blown like the Greek cenochoë, or pitcher with a trilobate mouth and ovoid body, and all are made of slightly trans- parent blue glass. White and yellow threads of glass have been looped about them in a series of scallops, resembling the fused designs of the earlier period. However, applied one by one merely to the surface of the glass, the light-coloured threads ad- hered but imperfectly, in certain spots melting into the surface or else standing out in relief. To the Hispanic Society belongs a pitcher (T350) of this description. These early examples of blown glass, which may possibly date within the period from the second to the first century B .c., are easily confused with their glass-paste prototypes. Following their conquest of the Iberian Penin- sula, the Romans settled in the territory, bringing to it the luxuries familiar to their homeland. Among the craftsmen's T350 products which they held essential PITCHER were their table services and funerary vessels of Found in Spain blown glass. Possibly second-first century B.C. The artisans of the Eternal City during this period were highly skilled in the fabrication of glass. They knew the secret of the millefiori variety which was 151 HISPANIC SOCIETY evidently made by fusing together slender threads of coloured glass to form a rod which was then cut transversely; the resulting sections were fitted spirally into a mould and joined or embedded in clear glass. Slabs imitating marble and other stones veneered the architectural members of buildings, and clear panes filled the small lights of windows ; moulded or cameo-cut glass substituted for real jewels in personal adornments. Above all, for their deft fashioning of blown glass and that blown into a mould the Roman workmen deserve the highest commendation. They were not the inventors of the blowing tube, but the objects which they produced with it demonstrate their ability in this technique. The moulded vessels include bottles with prismatic bodies, narrow necks, and broad, ribbon-like handles. Of the three in the Hispanic Society's collection one has a cross in relief on the base. Two beakers from La Cañada Honda, Gandul, (T94, TI 84) were blown into a mould which left ovoid protuberances, arranged in diaper pattern, around their tall sides. But more elab- orate and fanciful shapes, made extensively in the Roman provinces of Asia Minor, acquired such popu- larity that Rome and her northern and western prov- inces soon imitated the mode. Bottles were fashioned from amethyst, brown, and pale green and blue glass to represent two-faced heads, fruits, and fishes; jugs and cups were inscribed with conventional patterns and scenes of games and gladiatorial combats. From the necropolis at Carmona in southern Spain were ex- humed several pieces of moulded glass, one of them being a perfume bottle with the letters avg—possibly for an artisan named Augius—impressed on the base. roman beaker The utmost dexterity is demanded of the glass La Cañada Honda. Gandul workers who shape pieces at the end of a blowing tube. First-second century The bubble of glass, twisting about on the revolving tube, takes form not only from the air blown into it but also from the rotation, aided by various tools to push or pinch the soft vesicle into shape. Some of the most beautiful specimens of glass made by the Romans or by the peoples of their colonies testify that they were adept masters of the process. Shapes were so varied that it would be difficult to enumerate them all; colours were much the same as those in moulded glass. For ornamentation, coloured threads, spun out from lumps of glass, were spiraled around them, as the strands encircling the neck of Ewer T14, found at Itálica. Patches of tinted glass were applied and fused on the sides of vases, spikes were pulled out with pincers from the soft walls of certain vessels, and in the sides of others large dents were sunk with blunt implements. The process of glass engraving also was familiar to the Romans, and during the first five centuries a.d designs ranged from . simple, horizontal lines to foliage patterns, heads in medallions, and mythological scenes. Glass vessels, buried principally within tombs in every country over which 152 GLASS Rome held sway, have been unearthed during the past two centuries in vast quantities, to which Spain has contributed a goodly share. Undoubtedly, these articles were at first imported from Rome, but it is not surprising to find that workshops later sprang up in Spain, where, according to Pliny, glass was commonly manufactured throughout the first century of our era. Whether some of the glass, so abundant at Mérida, Bolonia, Itálica, and Carmona and its environs was manufactured there or whether it was all imported from Rome, Syria, Gaul, and the Rhineland has not been ascertained. The household and funerary glass excavated at Itálica in 1898 by the President of the His- panic Society comprises, among other things, perfume or ointment bottles, some with small bodies and long necks, others squat and rotund, ROMAN EWER Itálica still others shaped like modern, chemical test Third-fourth century tubes. From these containers were poured fra- grant scents over the ashes of the dead, and the bottles were thrown into the cinerary urns or on the flames of the pyre. There are two aryballuses—globular oil bottles—which were carried into the bath, hung on the wrist by a bronze loop. Table service includes such vessels as bowls and cups, not unlike the red, sigillate pottery in shape ; tall-necked ewers, their handles finished off with the pincers; spherical vases with high, flaring necks; round and oval plates, and a conical goblet. Illustrative of the wide scope of Roman glass making is the collection, now displayed in the gallery of the Hispanic Museum and discovered in 1910 by George Edward Bonsor at La Cañada Honda, Gandul. From this site, near Sevilla and not far from Carmona, Bonsor unearthed glass vessels of every description, tinted pale blue or green, crystal, yellow, olive green, and cobalt blue. For use during funeral rites were the little ointment jars and slender per- fume bottles; a two-handled jar or ampulla perhaps contained an offering of honey. Several small ewers, with spherical bodies and wide necks and a single handle each, may have had the ceremonial purpose of holding milk offerings, or they may have been articles of daily use. Among the funerary pieces, a large ovoid cinerary urn (T185) made of bluish green glass was discovered within a lead casing; a flat lid with a high knob covers the wide mouth. Urns of this variety were the usual receptacles for human ashes as late as the third cen- tury of our era. Glassware for table service shows a diversity of processes, shapes, and col- ours. Like those found in other parts of the Roman empire are the two moulded beakers with knobby projections covering the entire surface of their tall sides. 153 HISPANIC SOCIETY A cobalt blue ewer (T108) is an example of blown glass, the sides of which have been dented by a blunt implement while in a viscous condition. And in the fashioning of a tiny vial for scent (T154), little ex- crescences were pinched in the pliable glass around the circumference of the body. Evidence of the technique of engraving is found on a beaker (T98) and two cups (T101, T102), for encircling them are groups of fine rings cut horizontally into the surface of the glass. Originally crystal clear, the pieces now shine brilliant green, blue, and purple. Amid drinking vessels of or- dinary shape, such as cups and goblets, one stands out as most unusual, the rhyton or drinking-horn, pale green in colour. Jugs, bottles of various dimensions, and high-necked flasks with globular and pyriform La Cañada Honda, Gandu bodies constitute further specimens of domestic glass. Third-fourth century They were made from paste tinted pale, watery blue or delicate yellow-green. Noticeable at times more distinctly than the true colour of the glass are the shimmering irides- cent hues which enhance its beauty. The opales- cence is not due to the decorative power of the glass blower; it is a kind of decay. Having been buried for centuries in the damp earth, certain chemicals within the glass dissolved, leaving layers of tiny scales. The light striking the surface at dif- ferent levels and angles is refracted as by thousands of tiny prisms, and the glass sparkles with metallic ROMAN EWER blue, green, rose, and gold. La Cañada Honda. Gandul That the Visigoths in Spain used glass as much First-second century as did the Romans is thought probable from the few examples which have survived. Among them are a rectangular blue paten with a moulded fish design and a bowl with fused cabochons of green glass. T98 Fondness for glass imitations of precious gems is revealed by such archaeological ROMAN BEAKER finds as the seventh-century crowns from the "treasure of Guarrazar". The following five or six hundred years—centuries when Spain was domi- nated by the Arabs—is, through scarcity of examples, an unfamiliar period in the history of glass. The northern provinces, fighting desperately, freed them- selves gradually from Muhammadan rule. Not looking to their enemy, then, for artistic inspiration but towards France, they learned her precepts or bor- rowed her artists to work on their churches and monasteries. The close associa- tion of northern France with Navarra, which in the late twelfth century gov- erned the Basque province of Alava, perhaps explains the resemblance in style of a stained and painted glass window fragment (T360) from Alava to the cathedral windows at Chartres. In this fragment, which measures about a foot square, the small pieces of T108 154 GLASS leaded grisaille glass of pale green, streaked and filled with air bubbles, are brightened by a central roundel stained deep yel- low and quarter rounds of rosy lavender at each corner. Patterns have been formed on the surface of the glass by outlining or by filling in the back- ground with a reddish brown paint; the painting was done either around the designs with a brush or else applied in a solid mass and scratched away with a sharp implement. With the light shining through the window, this brown paint appeared as black as the leading; it was meant not to decorate the glass but to mark out the patterns. The foliated quatrefoils, the crosshatched back- T360 WINDOW FRAGMENT grounds, and the conventional running bands of the Alava Thirteenth piece indicate that the fragment century was undoubtedly part of a border in a medallion window. The kind of glass, the manner in which it is painted, as well as the ornamentation, date it as no later than the first half of the thirteenth century. It is uncertain, however, whether or not the glass is of Spanish workmanship; there are equal possibilities of its having been im- ported from France and of having been made in Spain by a French glazier. Barcelona and other towns of the province have long been hailed as famous centres of glass making. Products of the Romanesque period have been dis- covered in the churches of Cataluña, small vials (lipsanotecas) to contain relicts placed within the altars. Of blown glass, they were sometimes ornamented with moulded reliefs and of such rudimentary workmanship that they may be con- sidered the output of a native fabric. Other eleventh to thirteenth-century shapes were bottles with spherical bodies and tall conical necks, ampolles, vases, and lamps. Romanesque paintings, artisans' contracts, and other documents cor- robórate the evidence of glass making in Cataluña during this time. Through the following centuries, writers declared that in beauty the glass of Barcelona, the best made in all Spain, might easily compete with that of Venice. So im- portant was the industry that the glass market, held in the streets of Cataluña's capital each New Year's Day, was considered a major j/íesía to which the sol- emn city councilors lent their presence. By the fifteenth century the glass makers leagued as a guild with the makers of esparto-grass mats, but by 1594 the glass workers had become so important that they formed a separate guild under the protection of the Archangel Saint Michael. Many are the references to the glass of Barcelona in sixteenth-century inventories and other documents, an interesting list being that of the two hundred and seventy-three glass ob- jects sent from Barcelona in 1503 by King Ferdinand the Catholic to Queen Isabel. Philip the Second must have favoured the delicate and transparent ware of Barcelona, for an inventory of the palace of El Pardo, dated 1564, itemized over one hundred pieces of glass as having been made at that city. The bright enamels, decorating glass vessels for which sixteenth-century 155 HISPANIC SOCIETY Barcelona is famed, were used not to block out a pattern of light and shadow as in early windows, but to afford a colourful surface ornamentation. A sug- gestion of Moorish design and colouring in these objects points to the Near East as the place of their inspiration. Reaching a high state of perfection during the thirteenth and early four- teenth centuries, much of the Moslem glass, although found in Egypt and Arabia, was blown and coloured by the skilled workers of Syria. Cataluña's trade with this country is evidenced in documents of the period; inventories list frequently Damascene glass, thus indicating it as a luxury imported abun- dantly by Catalan merchants. It may be inferred that the glass, described as "painted in divers colours", was identical to Muhammadan mosque lamps, bottles, and ewers made in the Levant. After the middle of the fifteenth century, however, lists of valuables no longer mentioned the Syrian glass ; instead, there commenced to appear articles of glass designated as imitations of the Damascus product. Perhaps a patriotic desire to use domestic goods or the levying of a high duty on importations caused this change. Then, too, a scarcity of Damascene glass may have been effected by the fall of the city in 1400 to Tamerlane, who carried off many Syrian glass makers with him to Samarkand. While the mid-fifteenth century saw the birth of Catalan enameled glass, pieces surviving to the present time can be dated with no certainty as earlier than the sixteenth century, except possibly a broken bowl excavated at Poblet Monastery. Because of their fragility, such breakage has resulted that their number is now comparatively small. Those which remain are fashioned of clear, colourless glass and tinted predominantly with apple-green, yellow, and white enamels, enriched with gilding and with touches of blue, black, and reddish brown. Simplicity and little variation in the forms mark the enameled glass of Cataluña. The extant pieces consist of plates and tazzas, ewers, tall, covered jars, and two-handled vases of flask shape. The vase (T351) in the Hispanic Society's collection is one of these ampolles of which there are two examples in the Barcelona Museum, another in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and still another in the Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan at Madrid. Portrayed on the clear, gray-tinged glass, two white birds flutter among the foliage over the heads of a man and a woman who stand beneath a huge yellow and green flower and under verdant cypress trees. Their ruffs, her stiff, wide skirt, and his doublet and full breeches proclaim the period in which the vase was made— the late sixteenth century. The Society's vase is not a unique example of the use of human figures for decoration. The apparel of courtiers and peasants is sharply contrasted on a plate in the Barcelona Museum, where there is also a tazza, painted with a ring of little children playing a game. On a plate in the former Plandiura Col- lection, a youth dances briskly as a girl accompanies him on the guitar. Birds and animals were favourite themes, also. Often among the leafy boughs on an 156 GLASS VASE Barcelona Late sixteenth century 157 HISPANIC SOCIETY enameled vessel are perched birds pecking at nuts and berries or preening their feathers. Dogs running cifter one another or chasing deer enliven the borders of plates and the bands surrounding vases. Sacred monograms, coats of arms, and the insignia of religious orders are plentiful on the hanging lamps made to burn before altars. Like that painted with the arms of the Monastery of Montserrat in the former Amatller Collection, Barcelona, the lamps are cylin- drical with broad, outstanding rims. As a principal feature in the design or as a background, stylized foliage plays an important part in the enamel decoration of glass. Few pieces of the ware lack trees, vines, or sprays of flowers. In the Hispanic Museum there is a goblet (T353), the stem and foot of which have disappeared. Rising from a flat base, the sides are decorated with a network of trailed ribbing, the raised meshes being accented in white enamel. The brim swells outward and up in a wide-flaring curve that is em- bellished with touches of gilding, with green and blue dots, and with white- enameled stem scrolls, from the ends of which grow clusters of yellow green oak leaves. From the seventeenth century, allu- sions to the glass of Barcelona are fre- quently encountered. A tangible proof of the statements of contemporary writers is the appearance of seventeenth and eighteenth-century Catalan glasses in modern collections; their fragile grace proclaims eloquently their similarity to the Venetian. Until recent years, much of this Spanish glass was attributed to Venice, and, indeed, some of it may have been fashioned by Italian artisans working in Cataluña. The bodies of vessels were often formed from colourless or smoky glass, while bright hues were applied for handles and decorations. Glass, stained amber and deep co- bait blue or tinged pale green, was blown into innumerable vessels, the decora- tions being glass threads spun around rims and knobs of glass pulled and pinched to form irregular excrescences. The Catalans were also imitators of the Italian latticinio ware, in which opaque white glass was fused into the transparent background in stripes and lacy patterns. Belonging to the Hispanic Society is an eighteenth-century càntir (T358) of latticinio glass. The vessel is distinc- tive in shape; raised on a cone-shaped standard, the spherical body has a large ring handle at the top and, attached to opposite sides of the vessel, two spouts. The càntir was filled through the larger "spout. To drink from the vessel, it was necessary to hold it some distance from the open mouth and to tilt it at the proper angle for the liquid to pour in a thin stream through the smaller spout. The gray transparence of the body and standard is patterned with polka dots 158 GLASS and stripes of milk-white glass in network. Rosettes of pinched ornamentation are applied to the body and spouts, and threads of pinched glass reënforce the juncture of body and pedestal. Perched on top of the ring handle is a little bird, its crest, wings, and tail having been pulled into shape by the pincers while the glass was still soft. Certain characteristic shapes among the glasses of Cataluña often help to solve a question of identity. Besides the càntir are found the porró, a long-spouted container from which wine is drunk in the same manner as from the càntir, and the morratxa, a three or four-spouted vessel for rosewater, carried at festivals by dancers. A product of the eighteenth century, a smoke- coloured oil lamp (T359) in the collection is a piece peculiar to the region. It is circular, bordered by a hollow ring for holding the oil; at the hot- CANTIR Cataluña tom, a spout for the wick extends at right angles Eighteenth century from the tube. On the top of the lamp, a flat ribbon of glass bent into triangular shape forms the handle for hanging on the wall or holding in the hand. Class manufacture in eastern Spain was not confined to the province of Cataluña. From the fourteenth century there are records that Mallorca had its own industry, stimulated perhaps by a master glass blower of Barcelona, who had in 1347 established his workshop and ovens there. In 1600, a Venetian brought with him to the Island the knowledge of glass blowing as it was done by his countrymen. He taught the creift to the Majorcans, and so successful a teacher was he that after five years the islanders found it unnecessary to rely upon Italian importations. A street, named Forn del Vidre for the glass furnace which it harboured, was undoubtedly a centre of glass blowing at Valencia. Besides the capital, there were other towns in the kingdom where glass was made. Paterna had a factory, the waste heaps of which were discovered at the beginning of the present century when excavations were being made for pottery. From cer- tain of the glass fragments unearthed there, a fourteenth-century goblet, now in the Macaya Collection, has been reconstructed. Its yellowish bowl is an inverted cone, ribbed vertically and attached to the conical base by a solid, spherical knop. The glass industry flourished at Ollería and at Busot, near the city of Alicante. Salinas in the province of Alicante was a fortunate location for workshops, and until the last years of the nineteenth century it was the source of glasswTar3e 5w8hich was in great demand throughout the vicinity. A few glass vessels, enameled predominantly in white, reveal strong Muhammadan influence. One of the group, a sixteenth-century jar, reminis- 159 HISPANIC SOCIETY cent of a mosque lamp in shape, belongs to the Museus d'Art de Catalunya and comes, it is said, from Valencia. Enameled bottles, direct copies of German and Dutch bottles and vases, were manufactured during the latter half of the eighteenth century by Dutch craftsmen who settled in Valencia and Alicante. Engraved glass, imitating the work of La Granja in Castilla, was also produced during this period. Within the southerly kingdom of Granada lies the province of Almería, renowned among the Moslems as early as the thirteenth century for its glass products. The tradition of the Muhammadans, discerned in shapes and ornamentation, was contin- ued for several hundreds of years. Small objects were blown from glass which varied in shade from blue green to brownish olive and amber yellow. Decorations of applied threads, festoons, scallop shells, and chains of glass protrude from the vessels. Characteristic of the manufactories of Granada are the vases with small globular bodies, tall collars shaped as inverted cones, and numerous handles extending from collar to body. The vessels, ornately wound with glass threads, show an influence inspired, it is thought, by Moslem mosque lamps. A little emerald green flask (T364) belonging to the Society is Granadine and comes probably from Almería. It has a small, short neck and an ovate body, flattened at the base and embellished on two sides with shell-like excrescences of glass paste. Looped from the neck are two handles, the ends of which adhere to the body and trail to the base of the flask in a series of tiny knobs. A pear-shaped bottle of about the same height is fashioned also from green glass and ornamented similarly. The Society's pieces resemble two bottles in the Victoria and Albert Museum. One example in the London collection is green, the other amber; they are said to have come from Castril de la Peña or Maria, towns in the province of Almería. To correct the bright green colouring of their glass, the artisans of Castril added carbon to the paste. There resulted the yellowish tone so distinctive of their products. An animal (T363), exhibited at the Hispanic Museum, is crudely shaped and blown from bright green glass. Its grotesque head bristles with horns; it has a thick neck, a dragon-like body terminating in a stubby ANIMAL Almería tail, four short legs, and four wings which are Seventeenth century folded, two on each side. While its purpose seems to have been entirely ornamental, a similar beast in the Museu Episcopal at Vich was designed to hold vinegar. A shaker used to sprinkle salt is an- other piece belonging to the group at the Hispanic Society. It is cylindrical 160 GLASS with perforations in the flat top; both top and bottom are edged with flaring rims of fluted glass; five pinched ribbings decorate the sides. These Granadine glasses date from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth century. Also, a greenish yellow flask (T362) with a brilliant green rim and handles and serrated ornamentations extending to the base was probably made in the province. A flask (T354) of thick, olive green glass has been attributed to one of the fabrics of Almería. However, the quiet simplicity of form and the lack of over-exuberance in decorations make it differ from the examples already described. A spiraled glass thread around the upper half of the body and a glass chain of triangular links around the lower half comprise the ornamenta- tion. Central Spain abounded with skilled glass workers. Their ovens were scattered about in many towns and villages of Castilla, and their products were hawked on the streets of the capital or sold by merchants at the Madrid fairs. Without doubt. Cadalso de los Vidrios is the most familiar of these towns, judging from liter- ary references to the industry. During the fifteenth century the Archpriest of Talavera proclaimed the glass of that town. An anonymous author, writing prob- ably towards the end of the reign of Charles the Fifth, mentioned the glass made there, coupling it with that of Venice. Lucius Marineus, in the early sixteenth century, said that of the several Castilian towns manufacturing glass, the most important was Cadalso and that its products supplied the entire kingdom. In 1645 it was reported that the three ovens of the town produced excellent glass, beautifully coloured and gracefully shaped, which could well compare with that of Venice. There were two glass ovens at the beginning of the eighteenth century, both belonging to the Marchioness of Villena, but by the middle of the century one of the workshops had ceased manufacturing, and the fame of the glass, so remarkable for its clearness and variety of form, diminished. The artisans of Cadalso and other glass-making centres chose to emulate Barcelona and Venice; thus, there are no general characteristics by which to distinguish the glassware of Castilla. Fortunately, the glass was popular throughout the kingdom, and there have been found quantities in the vicinity of Cadalso and in the convents of Toledo. Some attempt can, therefore, be made to classify it. Certain objects such as plates, confectionary dishes, and vases are of transparent, colourless glass ornamented with glass fillets and knobs, the borders at times brightened with touches of gold. Vessels were blown, also, from pale green and violet blue paste and from a glass which, when seen with the light through it, looks as though coated with dust. Flasks, bottles, and vinegar cruets were made from thick crystal glass to be engraved with stylized 161 HISPANIC SOCIETY foliage, and in the late seventeenth century opaline glass, in imitation of the Venetian and Catalan, was developed. There is a possibility that a cup (T355) in the Society's collection was fashioned at Cadalso de los Vidrios, although it also resembles the wares of Barcelona. Of clear, yellowish glass, the spherical body with wide collar rising from it rests on a circular base. Atop the ear-shaped handle is a cockscomb and dentated ornament worked from the glass, and around the lower part of the globular body runs a chain pattern of glass thread. In the former Artíñano Collec- tion, a jar, said to have proceeded from Cadalso, has much the same kind of chain decoration. Both the Amatller and the Macaya Collections at Barcelona contain examples of Castillan glass— pitchers, ewers, and two-handled vases, many of them tall and slim on high pedestals. The less important glass houses of other Castillan towns strove to copy the wares of Cadalso. From the early sixteenth century the important Valladolid was furnished by Medina del Campo with glass sold principally at its fairs and on market days. Philip the Second was the promoter of the glass works at Quejigal near the Escorial. Of the sixteenth-century products of Valdemaqueda, near Segovia, little is known except that they commanded high prices, comparing more than favourably with the glass of Barcelona. At San Martin de Valdeiglesias the industry was directed in 1680 by a Fleming. The province of Cuenca from the sixteenth through the eighteenth cen- tury maintained glass ovens in a number of towns, those at Recuenco being especially of interest. By the end of the seventeenth century, the glass manu- factured at Recuenco rivaled that made at Cadalso in the quantity sold through- out Castilla. King Philip the Fifth was aware of the good quality of Recuenco glass and ordered that jars for the wine cellars and drug containers for the royal pharmacy be supplied by this fabric. The courtiers soon followed their ruler's lead, buying vases, jars, and sweetmeat dishes. Filled with bubbles and imperfections, the glass made in Cuenca is of a greenish hue. To correct this colouration, vessels were blown to an extreme tenuity which made them very light in weight. The tops of vases were pulled and pinched to octagonal shape, and strands of glass were spiraled around the brim, collar, or base. Usually these threads were of the same colour as the vase itself, but rarer examples have fillets of latticinio or blue glass. In the collection is an urn-shaped vase (T367) from the province of Cuenca, and probably from Recuenco. Its pale blue green, campaniform body, blown to thin fragility, rests on a round slightly raised foot ; low on its bowl two ring handles of blue glass are attached opposite one another. The rim, bent into a faintly defined octagon, is entwined 162 GLASS by a thread of blue. The surface of the glass is cloudy from partial decomposition. In a grandiose manner, Juan de Goyeneche planned his glass factory at Nuevo Baztán. Choosing a site near Madrid, he began in 1720 the labour of building costly workshops and a beautiful palace for himself, aided by the archi- tect Churriguera. Goyeneche finally set in action the artisans whom he had gathered together— foreigners as well as Castillans and Navarrese. Appreciative of royal protection, Goyeneche had a table service made for Queen Isabel Farnese; the pieces were of glass blown into moulds, then engraved with the arms of King Philip the Fifth. A tumbler, which formerly be- longed to the Marquis of Valverde de la Sierra and is now in the Museo de Artes Decoraiitías, Madrid (Artíñano Collection), is believed to have been a piece of this royal service. Moulded fleurs-de-lis decorate the lower part of the tumbler, and Philip's arms supported by a cherub, surmounted by a crown, and encircled by the chain of the Golden Fleece are cut into the glass. The hopes that the fabric of Nuevo Baztán could supply the demand for fine crystal glass in Spain and thus make its importation from foreign countries unnecessary were destroyed by a tariff war. The cost of the imported wares was so low that the native glass could not compete with it. Besides, the di- minishing supplies of fuel near Nuevo Baztán forced Goyeneche to move his ovens to the mountains of Cuenca in the little town of Villanueva de Alcorón. There he made ordinary glass similar in shape and composition to that of Recuenco. With the removal of Goyeneche's factory, his workmen scattered; some re- turned to Cataluña, others left the country, and others followed Ventura Sit who, although originally but a modest apprentice at Nuevo Baztán, began his own workshop in 1728 within the grounds of the royal palace of La Granja at San Ildefonso. For eight years Sit worked independently, making small panes of blown glass for windows. Realizing the Catalan glass maker's skill. Queen Isabel ordered built within the palace property a factory where Sit and his workmen could devote them- selves to labouring especially for the King. Their first attempts were experi- ments with mirrors of plate glass, quicksilvered on the back. The glass was rolled on metal plates, tempered, scraped, and polished with a machine in- vented by one of the artisans. Larger pieces were gradually produced until the La Granja fabric had the reputation for making plate glass of greater size than that of any other European factory. Ventura Sit retained his interest in this branch of glass making until his death in 1755. He is also credited with having been an engraver, for there have been attributed to him two rectangular mirrors 163 HISPANIC SOCIETY etched with birds and foliage twined around strapwork and medallions fram- ing a battle scene and a bullfight. Great damage had been done to the factory by two fires, so that, when Charles the Third came to the throne, he had a well-equipped building erected outside the walls of the village. A determined spirit to make the products of La Granja better than French, German, and English importations prevailed in the new manufactory. This ideal, upheld by King Charles and his successors, could best be attained, they believed, by the appointment of a predominating num- her of foreign masters and artists. Already, the Swedish Eder and his son and the Frenchman Sivert had charge of producing glass in the German and French manners. To the roll of foreigners were added John Dowling, an Englishman who invented an hydraulic polishing machine, and Sigismund Brun, a German who claimed to have discovered the secret of fired gilding on glass. A branch workshop was opened at Madrid where several manufacturing processes were carried on, and buildings were purchased for storage warehouses. As a result of the influx of foreign influence. La Granja glass reëchoes the styles of Germany—especially Bohemia—England, and France. Shaped like those from the British Isles are decanters and small wine glasses, their stems de- signed with bubbles, air and colour twists, and faceting. The processes of cutting, engraving, and gilding were Germany's important contributions to La Granja glass manufacture. Large, deeply cut designs cover the entire surfaces of objects which they adorn. Contemporary scenes or allegories are subjects in which the human figure predominates, while scrolled strapwork and cartouches, com- bined with animal and foliage designs, offer additional ornamentation. France lent her more delicate and sprightly patterns for the use of the workers at San Ildefonso. It was unnecessary to leave Spain for knowl- edge of enameling on glass. A master crafts- man was José Busquet, who, if not a Catalan himself, at least was a student of Catalan glass. He was thoroughly familiar with the composition of many enamels, the formulas for which he had collected in the glass fab- rics of Cataluña and carried with him to San Ildefonso. The quality of the glass paste made at the royal manufactory was originally thick and of slightly greenish tinge. But under Eder and Busquet, improvements developed T426 SUGAR BOWL until the glass became perfected to crystal La Granja de San Ildefonso clearness. Because of the increased tenuity Eighteenth century and the resulting lack of depth in the cut- ting, engraving on glass lost much of its beauty. The eight pieces of La Granja glass belonging to the Hispanic Society bear 164 GLASS all the characteristics of objects made during the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The glass is brilliant, crystal clear, occasionally marred by tiny im- perfections of unfused substances. The cutting is shallow and gilded. Of the popular sugar bowls or confectionary jars, there are two in the collection (T426, T445). Both are cylindrical with two handles; they stand on circular bases and have covers topped by knob handles. Around the body of Jar T426, gilt stars sparkle from enframing festoons of ribbons, flowers, and foliage. Sprays of gilt leaves and berries are engraved on the lid of the bowl. On opposite sides of Jar T445 are cut two golden flowers with their foliage. The cover of the jar, rising sharply to a cone, is cut with long sprigs of berries and fine leaves. A similar floral pattern and scattered leaf sprays decorate a bottle-shaped decanter (T428); golden leaves ornament the flat sides of its circular stopper of moulded glass. The upper portion of a large tumbler (T427) is bedecked with flowers and leaves twisted around ribbon swags which are looped up with bowknots to a wreath of laurel leaves. From the thick base regular flutes extend up the sides of the tumbler. The body of another drinking vessel, a mug, is dia- La Granja de San Ildefonso pered with a pattern of delicate trefoils growing erect Eighteenth century from clusters of leaves. Three covered vases complete the group of La Granja glasses in the Hispanic Museum. They are all of about the same shape: bulbous bodies raised on circular bases, tall wide collars, loop handles, and cone-shaped covers topped by knobs. The garland motive is found repeated on the cover, neck, and body of Vase T430; a gilt band of etched geometrical pattern around the body of Vase T443 separates two rows of stiff flowerlets. An undulating ribbon traversed by a narrow band, from which spring triads of balls, forms the principal decoration on the body of Vase T444. Vases of this style were evidently very popular, for they are well represented in modern collections and have been frequently en- countered in Mexico where they were exported from Spain. Other products of the San Ildefonso fabric were panes of glass for doors and windows; mirrors of all sizes, some engraved with elaborate designs ; cande- labra and chandeliers with glass prisms and pend- T427 TUMBLER ants; lenses for eyeglasses and opera glasses; objects La Granja de San Ildefonso of opaque milk glass with gilt and coloured enamel Eighteenth century decorations. Attempts to protect the factory and the sale of its wares were made by T428 DECANTER 165 HISPANIC SOCIETY Charles the Third, who decreed that no other kind of glass, whether Spanish or imported, might be sold at Madrid or within a radius of twenty miles from the city. Still, the factory could not be maintained on the amount of its sales, and the heavy burden of its upkeep fell upon the royal exchequer. Spanish America furnished a market for La Granja glass, but the demand was not great enough to bring financial success to the industry. Later, copies of the Castilian product were fashioned at Puebla, Mexico. There was no exportation of La Granja glass to other countries, with the excep- tion of the presents sent by the Spanish monarchs to the court of Sicily and to Morocco. tso7 PORRO In 1829 the factory at San Ildefonso became a Valencia 20th private Late I9th-early enterprise. It closed completely for a while, century then became a commercial plant for the produc- tion of plate glass for mirrors and window panes. With the increasing knowledge of better materials for use in glass making at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the industry grew more wide- spread throughout Spain, and the products almost entirely commercial. Glass of artistic merit continued to be made in small quantities only in the private workshops of a few craftsmen. Several pieces of modern industrial glass belong to the Hispanic Society. Three Valencian porros (T506-T508) and another example from Manresa, Cataluña, are of the shape popularly used, especially in the eastern part of the country, for drinking wine. There is, too, a Valencian cruet (T505), or vinagrera, of pale green, bubbly glass ; the bottle is divided diag- onally by a partition of glass into two compartments, one for oil, the other for vinegar. At the Barcelona Exposition in 1929, a Majorcan glass concern built within the Pueblo Español a workshop where they demonstrated the processes of blowing and shaping glass objects. The artisans of the manufactory endeavour to reproduce in colour, texture, and shape the glass of seventeenth and eighteenth-century Cataluña. Two pieces, a vase (T503) and a morratxa (T504), were made in this workshop at the Exposition. The emerald green vase is like a bit of bubbling sea water confined in solid form; it has a squat, bulbous body, a tall, cup- shaped neck, and two handles with pinched decora- tions. The four-spouted rosewater sprinkler is of clear golden brown glass; a circular foot supports the ovoid body, around the tapering sides of which has been applied a wavy ribbon of milk glass. 166 GLASS Interest in enameled glass was revived in Cataluña when Marinot, a French- man, exhibited in the exposition of French art held at Barcelona in 1917 some of his work done after the traditional Catalan manner. Francesc Quer, noted ceramist, and Francesc Elías were immediately aroused with the ambition to work in this medium, Elías holding an exhibition of his first labours the following year. Quer later assembled a group of pupils, among them Josep Col, who has done much of his work at the Escola dels Bells Oficis since its foundation. Three women who studied at this school and whose work is beginning to win acknowledgment are Euda and Núria Solé and America Cardunets. The craftsman Ricard Crespo and the painter Xavier Nogués have combined their talents in making delightful pieces of enameled glass. Josep Col, who now works for an appreciative Parisian clientele, has departed far from his early experiments in enameling commercial objects. He gradually came to feel the limitations of these common forms made by another hand and began to design and frequently to make, himself, the glass which he deco- rates. His transparent enamels convert his creations into glowing emerald, sapphire, and amethyst lights, accented by flaming coral, white, and yellow opaque pigments. Working in a more modest and simple style than Col, Francesc Elías has, nevertheless, captured securely the spirit of the enameled glass products of seventeenth-century Cataluña. He does not overcrowd the glass with decora- tion; he believes that the first principle in glass making is to emphasize the transparent quality of glass. To this condition he subordinates the shapes which are simple and the ornamentation which is sharply defined and bril- liant. The tumbler (T501) in the Society's collection is representative of these pre- cepts. The slightly con- cave sides of the crystal glass are painted with blue and orange shrubbery and a yellow and white dog Tsoi chasing a long-eared FRANCESC ELIAS orange Tumbler rabbit. The artist's sig- nature is written in black on the side of the tumbler, and the base bears the name of the shop at Barcelona for which it was made. It is of primary interest MORRATXA Barcelona Twentieth century ■ ■ o 167 HISPANIC SOCIETY to Elías to decorate objects of daily use so that they may be raised from their unsightly commercialism to the ranks of beauty and grace. Like him, the other glass enamelers of the province bend their efforts not only to revert to the glory of an era of glass production, now dead, but to invigorate their fragile creations with fresh charm and individuality. A. W. F. ? GOLD AND SILVERWORK GOLD NECKLACE BEADS La Cruz del Negro V RACING the work of the goldsmith from the primitive diadems wrought in neolithic times, there unfolds the heritage of ornament and technique bequeathed by each successive race that inhabited Iberia. When Phoenician merchants, bringing the wares of Egypt and Babylonia to the southern shores of the Peninsula, discovered a land of vast mineral wealth, a flourishing traffic in tin, silver, gold, and precious stones ensued. Tartessos and Cádiz, probably by the eighth century before Christ, were rising as great emporiums in the western world. It was near the latter centre, in the necropolis of Punta de la Vaca, that Phoenician findings in any considerable number first appeared in Spain. This discovery, in 1887, revealed a necklace of gold and agate beads, rings with movable bezels, and amulet pendants skillfully carved with animal heads of Egyptian symbolism. That the industries of these early traders penetrated inland to the hills of Los Alcores bordering on the Guadalquivir, where silver-laden cargoes were floated down to the coast from the rich mines of the Sierra Morena, is shown by material excavated by George Edward Bonsor in 1889 at El Acébuchal and La Cruz del Negro. With pottery, engraved ivories, and other antiquities there came to light necklace beads of various shapes and materials, rings, brace- lets, fibulae in silver and bronze, buckles, and many other pieces of metal work harking back to the civilization of the second Age of Iron. A number of these objects, small and fragile symbols of ancient barter, now in the collection of the Hispanic Society, were probably importations from Carthage. They comprise fragments of gold foil, silver and bronze rings, beads of gold, silver, agate, amber, and glass in circular, cylindrical, and amphora shapes. Many Phœnician necklaces were made entirely of gold, but the simplest were composed of brilliantly coloured beads akin to those in the Hispanic Museum. Of special interest among these variegated beads is the single gold pendant (R3282); semi-ovate in form and stamped with a triple row of roundels, it re- sembles the pendants of the third necklace on the bust of the Lady of Elche. Pendants similar to this example and those of conical shape, depicted on this famous piece of sculpture, appear in combination with disk, crescent, and cylindrical forms on necklaces of like origin. Not only did the Phœnicians and their kinsmen carry from nation to nation 171 HISPANIC SOCIETY the products of their own craftsmanship, but those of all countries with which they came in contact. For reasons of trade many objects were copied, a fact which would account for the presence in the various Mediterranean countries including Spain and the island of Ibiza, of Egyptian scarabs and amulets, of Assyrian and Greek representations and symbols of the deities. The scarab (R3217) from the Andalusian necropolis shows an intaglio of the royal name of Mn-hpr-R'' which was borne by Thutmose the Third and by several later kings, surrounded by other hieroglyphs which may be rendered as the epithet "praised of Re". The scarab of crude workmanship, apparently of steatite, would appear to belong to a period later than that of Thutmose the Third whose name, as those of other deceased kings, was commonly invoked on scarabs as a protection against evil. R3282 GOLD PENDANT While adept in repousse, chasing, and filigree work, these La Cruz del Negro Phoenician craftsmen gained the greatest renown for their tech- nique of granular ornamentation, a species of embellishment originating in Egypt, which consisted in covering an area with minute balls or granules of metal. A brilliant example of this form of decoration is afforded by the jewels discovered at Aliseda, Càceres, in 1920, and now in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid. They surpass in richness all other Phoenician work that has been found in Spain. The treasure shows earrings, bracelets, rings, narrow bands of gold edging, neck- laces, and a girdle stamped with the design of sphinxes alternating with a combat between a man and a lion, and further enhanced with granulation. These objects in which the Assyrian style is predominant have been identified as work of the sixth century before Christ. The jewels exhibited with treasure-trove in the Archaeological Museum are striking testimony of the inherent fondness for ostentation that persisted in the Peninsula from the earliest times. The headdress or diadem is conspicuous among these ornaments for personal adornment. The diadem of smooth gold found in La Cueva de los Murciélagos, in the province of Granada, derives from the neolithic period. The example in the Aliseda group is in the form of a bandeau with triangular terminals, a type indigenous to the country, and resembles in shape the beauti- ful diadem discovered at Javea. The latter, of native origin, bears analogies in the ornamentation of rippling waves, snakes, and lozenges to Grecian forms adorning the clay statues of Cerro de los Santos. Creek influence, seen also in jewelry from Galicia and carvings found in tombs on the island of Ibiza, became, following the fifth century before Christ, the salient feature of Punic art which in turn, three centuries later, gradually gave way to that of Imperial Rome. Contrasted with the Creek and Oriental style of the work of their predecessors, the Spanish metal workers produced under the Roman domination an art of a very different character. Ornament became more 172 GOLD AND SILVERWORK sculptural, and in decoration the human figure predominated. Resulting from the growth of luxury under the Empire, silver vessels came into favour especially for table service. Pliny, referring to the copious supplies of silver and gold from the Spanish Peninsula, wrote that many of the mines in use since the time of Hannibal were still being exploited in his day. Metal work, like other industries, in reflecting the fashions imposed by Rome developed an aspect distinctly colonial. Specimens of the Roman period that have survived in the Peninsula are not great in number. Probably of the early Empire are the objects from the province of Beira in Portugal, showing a patera decorated with gilding and fine relief. Somewhat later, about the age of Hadrian, is the silver patera which was discovered at Otáñez in Santander. From the subject of its ornamentation it would seem to have been a votive offering to some deity of a curative fountain of which there were a number in northern Spain. The only object that has come to light comparable to this patera is the one from the Perotitos treasure from Santisteban del Puerto, Jaén. The most dis- tinctive piece in this hoard of silver, it is embossed with the head of Hercules encircled by a procession of figures and hunting scenes. In these little images the Spanish silversmith, working in the first century after Christ, skillfully de- picted a Graeco-Roman form of ornamentation similar to that seen in Alexan- drine work and Pompeian decoration. Representative of the late Roman plate are a series of large silver dishes, known as votive shields or disks, frequently bearing portraits of the emperors. A fine example of this type of art is the shield of the Spanish-born Emperor Theodosius, found at Almendralejo near Mérida in 1847 and now in the Academia de la Historia, Madrid. As the Greek inscription on the reverse of the shield and the Byzantine elements in the costume would indicate, the plate was probably made at Constantinople. A regulation of the time forbade the making of represen- tations of emperors in the provinces on account of the difficulty of obtaining a true copy of the features. Theodosius may have sent the shield bearing portraits of himself and his sons to Spain, not alone for political reasons but as a mark of esteem for his native land. In practically all countries where Roman remains have been found, there has appeared the trulla, a type of vessel resembling a casserole or ordinary saucepan. They were generally very carefully wrought and with- out ornamentation except on the handles which were flat. Often these vessels were entirely plain saving a few concentric mouldings at the base or under the flange R3035 at the rim. The two silver trullae ROMAN TRULLA (R3035-R3036) in the Society's collection have a series of little bas-relief enrichments on the handles which terminate in swans' heads both at the juncture with the moulded rim and at the lobed extremities. The designs, which are the 173 HISPANIC SOCIETY same on both vessels only appearing on one in reverse, consist of a mask of Pan, a basket of fruit with the thyrsus, a mask of Satyr with the pedum in saltire, a goat by a bush, and a mask of Silenus. These Dio- nysiac attributes, which were frequently used on paterae and other objects, belong to a style of decoration ^ ^§3 introduced into Roman work from Alexandria. When the orator Calvus deplored the extravagance of fashion- ing cooking vessels from silver, if not referring to them directly, he probably included in this category the richly ornamented trullx. Examples of these vessels por- traying a variety of decorative handles have appeared with statues, vases, and other objects in the famous treasures of Hildesheim at Berlin, Boscoreale in the Louvre, and that of Chatuzange in the British Museum. It is supposed that trullx figured among the ves- sels used by the Romans in their libations, as did the small buckets or situlae and R3036 vases with ornamental handles. roman TRULLA Bronze was used in the produc- tion of many of these receptacles which were wrought in superb shapes and adorned with reliefs of great artistic merit. Symbolism associated with Bacchus is generally prominent in the decoration of these vessels. On the handle of the bronze vase (R4421) in the Hispanic Mu- seum appears a figure in relief of Cupid holding the Bacchic torch; an embossed panther, rabbit, and dog further ornament the handle. A bronze situla (R4417), among other examples in the Museum, has a plain surface except for incised lines and a roman vase flaring rim edged with dentils; the bail finishing in swans' heads is spirally turned. Inscriptions of the second and third centuries ■ a.d. have been found in Spain recording the vari- ous classes of ornament that decorated statuary of that time. In agreement with these descriptions, necklaces and other objects have appeared set with pearls, emeralds, plasma, and occasionally with garnets. Of the jewel work of the Roman period in Spain examples of diadems, torques, earrings, and fibulae, comprising numerous pieces made es- for are in roman situla pecially funerary purposes preserved the Museo Arqueológico Nacional and other mu- seums and private collections in the Peninsula. Among the specimens of glass and metal which George Edward Bonsor re- 174 GOLD AND SILVERWORK moved in 1910 from the Roman necropolis of La Cañada Honda, Gandul, near Sevilla, which are now in the Society's collection, are amphora-shaped pendants of rock crystal, agate, and other substances, and a clay necklace of melon- shaped beads. Showing remains of glazing, each pale blue-green sphere of the latter is ribbed longitudinally in the same manner as those on the three necklaces of the Lady of Elche. It is possible that this necklace shows a continuity of style with that of the earlier Graeco-Phoenician type. Rings of bronze, silver, gold, and glass were among the pieces of jewelry from La Cañada Honda. With the Romans, rings of glass were in common use. In harmony with a style frequently found is an example from Gandul with the hoop decorated in a spiral band of an- other colour and a piece of differently coloured glass set in the bezel. Of the two gold rings from the necropolis one has an intaglio setting of plasma with a head of a woman (R3377), the other of garnet bears the figure of Cupid (R3378). Intaglios of the second and first cen- turies show the influence of Greek sub- jects which were generally of child Cupids or a Bacchic character. R3377 Jewelry of the late Roman period R3378 ROMAN GOLD RING With bezel enlarged was characterized by the lavish ROMAN GOLD RING display With bezel enlarged La Cañada Honda of precious stones which were generally La Cañada Honda Gandul used to the exclusion of fine designs in Gandul metal. Enamel appears to have been sparingly used on jewelry, the goldsmith showing a preference for glass-paste inlays. This form of decoration may be seen on two brooches in the shape of doves, probably for liturgical use, set with pieces of glass in the manner of cloisonne work preserved in the Archaeological Museum at Madrid. Although of bronze, these objects have the appearance of being the product of the goldsmith's art, and their technique corresponds to that of the fourth or fifth century or to a time very close to the coming of the Visigoths to Spain. Remaining the sole testimony of the goldsmith's work during the three cen- turies of Visigothic supremacy in the Peninsula is a collection of jewels known as the treasure of Guarrazar. These objects, which were brought to light in 1858 when the earth which had concealed them for more than eleven centuries was swept away by great inundations in the Huerta de Guarrazar, comprised votive crowns and pendant crosses of purest gold studded with precious stones, and a number of engraved gems of the Roman period. Excavations in the region have disclosed the remains of a cemetery and the foundation of a small edifice or chapel. While it may be supposed that these jewels were hidden here upon the approach of the invading Arabs, it is probable that the crowns once served 175 HISPANIC SOCIETY as votive offerings before the altar of a great basilica near or at Toledo, the capital and court of the Visigothic kingdom. The treasure is shared to-day, with the exception of those pieces melted down by the goldsmiths of Toledo at the time of the discovery, among the Musée de Cluny at Paris, the Museo Arqueológico Nacional, and the Armería at Madrid. Of those jewels in the ^ i·mLI'l íV Armería, there were acquired by the Hispanic Society in 1912 facsimiles (R3136-R3140) of the five important objects, the crowns of Swinthila and Theodosius, the cross of Lucetius, a cluster or fleuron made of rock crys- tal and sapphires, and a fragment of another crown in a basket-weave design. As this fragment and the crown of Swinthila were unfortunately removed in 1921 by theft from the Armoury, a singular importance is now at- tached to these objects in the Society. It is the beautiful and intricately wrought crown bearing the name of Swinthila who was King in Spain from 621 to 631, at the time when Saint Isidore was writing his Etimo- logias, that proclaimed these jewels to be the work of seventh-century gold- smiths. R3136 The crown, formed of two plates CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA of gold united at the edge, is orna- Seventh century mented on the central band with a Facsimile design of circles percée à jour. This openwork pattern was formerly backed with little pieces of red carnelian. Pearls and sapphires set in cloisonné fashion alternately adorn the centres of the circles and the narrow bands at the borders. From short chains attached to the under- side of the crown hang pendant letters ; of small plates of gold they have on one face a zigzag design made of flat threads of gold filled in with carnelian. Each letter carries a pendant formed of a pear-shaped sapphire, surmounted by a pearl, a gold bead, and a small cube holding coloured glass, or paste, in imitation of emeralds and other precious stones. Only thir- teen of the twenty-two original letters remain of the inscrip- tion which read svinthilanvs rex offeret . Before the first S, R3137 FRAGMENT to indicate where the legend began and also as an emblem of FROM CROWN Catholic faith, is a cross bearing, as do the letters, a similar- Seventh century Facsimile ity to the characters used on the coins during the reign of Swinthila and other kings of the epoch. Attached to the crown are four suspension chains made of leaf-shaped 176 GOLD AND SILVERWORK links which are united by a fleuron formed of two golden lilies separated by a spheroid of rock crystal through which passes a rope or cord of gold with a hook at either end, the one underneath supporting the chain from which hangs the pendant cross subdivided into a series of interlacing curves similar to the cross of Calatrava. It was also the custom for Visigothic grandees and dig- nitaries to present symbolic crowns as votive offerings, and belonging to this class is the one dedicated by the Abbot Theodosius embossed with the legend: offeret mvnvscvlvm.sco.stefano ethodosivs.abba. It is noteworthy as being the only example in the treasure with the inscrip- tion within the band proper. Sapphire and pearl pendants ornament the crown, and also the small cross which bears the words: in nomine dni.in nomine sci offeret lvcetivs.e. Donated by the Bishop Lucetius, the latter probably belonged to a crown that has not been preserved. More sumptuous than the crown of Swinthila and form- ing the richest jewel in the Guarrazar treasure is the one in the Cluny Museum displaying the name of Recesvinthus, celebrated among Visigothic kings, who ruled from 649 R3138 to 672. Alike in workmanship and design to the earlier CROSS OF crown LUCETIUS are the rock-crystal and gold fleuron, the links of Seventh century the chains, and the letters forming Facsimile the inscription. The bands of both these crowns are hinged, possibly that they may have fitted more comfortably on the head. Although many theories have arisen as to the manner in which they were worn, it is believed that the letters and chains were added only at the time of their presentation to the sanctuary as votive offerings. The, treasure as a whole reveals a preference for the sapphire which is combined with pearls, rock crystal, mother-of-pearl, agate, coloured glass, or paste, in imita- tion of precious stones. The effect depends more upon the beauty and size of the stones than the careful render- ing of the stamped designs on the metal. The decorative elements occurring in this Visigothic jewel work are com- binations of tangent and intersecting circles, and the use of cinquefoil leaves flowers which R3139 or appear in the links FRAGMENT OF of both royal crowns. CROWN Inheriting in Spain the remains of Roman culture Seventh century a Facsimile which was already strongly influenced by the Orient, the Visigoths came later to identify themselves closely with Byzantium. This contact with the East resulted in the adoption of its arts, including that of 177 HISPANIC SOCIETY architecture. When a new impetus was given to ecclesiastical building in the Peninsula, following the renunciation of Arianism by King Recared in 589, churches began to be built copying the basilica form in favour in the East. Saint Isidore wrote of the mosaics which adorned the walls of their places of worship as well as the richness of liturgical ornaments made from precious metal. This period of construction and the one which produced the jewels of Guarrazar was contemporary in Byzantine art with the Golden Age of Justinian. Subsequent to the Arabic invasion in Spain, a portion of the population took refuge in the northern Kingdom of Asturias. There, beyond the Cantabrian mountains en- dured the traditions of Visigothic forms and ornament which were later to reappear throughout the province of León and Castilla. The chronicles of the Arabs dwell upon the brilliancy that the arts attained under the reign of the caliphs at Córdoba. In this Andalusian city from the time of 'Abd al-Rahman the First and his successors, a period of over two hundred and fifty years, there were building royal palaces, the great Cordovan mosque, and many smaller places of worship. These edifices were alike decorated with OF THEODOSIUS Seventh century a profusion of censers, hanging lamps, vases, candlesticks, Facsimile and many other objects made by workers schooled in the manipulation of metal. So skillfully did the gold and silversmiths apply the flowing Muhammadan designs of floral ornament, interlacing bands, and Kufic inscriptions to filigree patterns that metal surfaces simulated the effect produced by the finest and most intricate lacework. From these days of splendour there remain few examples of Arabic metal work, chiefly in them for of small decorative boxes or caskets. These objects, made of ornamental silver plates in repoussé covering wooden frames, were generally rectangular in form with arched covers. Gilt, enamel, and niello work were combined to further enhance the exterior. Fashioned also in ivory, bone, or marquetry, these little caskets appear to have been originally made for the hold- ing of jewels or perfumes. After the Reconquest, many of these pieces of Moslem industry, serving as pyxes and reliquaries, came to be placed on the altars of Christian churches. In the treasury of Gerona Cathedral there still exists a silver casket, a survival from the time of the caliphate. From the Kufic inscription sur- rounding the base of the cover, it is learned that the box was made for Prince Hisham, the son of Hakïm the Second. The palmettes of leaf patterns in repoussé, which are repeated on the surface of this silver casket, are similar to those on the ivory box in the Musée des Aris Décoratifs at Paris. The latter, ordered by Hakïm the Second in 966, belongs to that series of ivory boxes which present the exquisite quality of craftsmanship developed by the Spanish Arabs. Among other 178 GOLD AND SILVERWORK examples is the tenth-century ivory box with chased, nielloed, and silver-gilt mounts in the collection of the Hispanic Society; the silversmith who collab- orated with the sculptor demonstrates his skill in the manner in which the mounts harmonize with the delicate carving. The silver handle repeats in shape the palmette design on the surface as do the terminals of the strap hinges which have a chased pattern of conventionalized leaf stems suggested by the ornamentation. The mountings on a number of the ivory boxes, notably the copper bands on the one from Palència Cathedral, illustrate the expertness of the metal worker in the use of enameling. The application of enamel on the metallic portions of these carvings would suggest that many objects of the period were similarly ornamented. Later in date than the Gerona example are the two silver caskets from the Church of San Isidoro now in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional. The decoration of these objects is of the latter part of the eleventh century when the brilliant era of the caliphate had al- ready drawn to a close. Following the thirteenth century, the jewel work became as famed as the silken weaves of the garments worn by the Moorish women of Granada. Pearls, rubies, turquoises, and emeralds adorned their many ornaments. Carnelian and other precious stones were engraved and set in rings, pendants, and many pieces of jewelry, in answer to the belief in the singular virtues of certain gems and talis- manic figures. To guard against the influence of the R4000 evil eye invocations and phrases from the Koran were HISPANO-MORESQUE PADLOCK applied to all forms of decoration as well as to objects in common use. Amuletic in significance is the Kufic inscription on the small, fifteenth-century bronze padlock (R4000) in the collection of the Hispanic Society. The legend which appears to be a paraphrase of the Azora preservativa is inscribed on the facets of the prism-shaped object; on either end, possibly to make the lock even more eflica- cious, is incised a six-pointed star. The inscription has been translated as follows: From the evil of man From the evil of man From the evil eye My refuge is in the glory My refuge is in the most My refuge is in the most ^ Of the highest God. Perfect words of God. Perfect words of God The strongest of all Guardians. This padlock, and another example belonging to the Society (R4001) which bears the formula of the unity of God, are both of Granadine provenance. The metal workers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries practiced in Granada the art of damascening with a technique which upheld the illustrious traditions known to Persia and to Damascus. Among the arms and weapons to which this form of decoration was especially applied, the sword hilts and sheaths were the most celebrated for their intricate and delicate patterns. The famous sword with gold and enameled hilt which tradition holds to have be- 179 HISPANIC SOCIETY longed to Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, exists with other con- temporary examples, as a distinguished specimen of Hispano-Moresque crafts- manship. In the Christian kingdoms of north- ern Spain the gold and silversmiths, following the Arabic invasion, contin- ued in the Byzantine traditions of seventh-century work. As in Visigothic times, kings and royal personages en- riched the treasuries of church and mon- astery with precious objects pertaining R4001 to the HISPANO-MORESQUE PADLOCK practice of the Christian cult. Renowned among the gifts of this nature, offered in the ninth and tenth centuries, are the two processional crosses in the Cámara Sania of Oviedo Cathedral, the Cross de los Angeles and the Cross de la Victoria. The former has embellishments of gold filigree set with stones of great splendour in a manner resembling the jewel work of the Visigoths; its inscription bears the date 808 and the name of the donor, Alfonso el Casio. The Cross of Victory with a legend of a hundred years later has enclosed within its golden plates the cross of wood which is traditionally believed to have been carried before Pelayo in his victorious battles at the beginning of the Re- conquest. The gold casing of this cross, made, as its inscription reads, in the Castle of Gauzón in Asturias, the royal residence of Alfonso the Third, was one of the first examples to deviate from the Greek or Asiatic form of equal members. Terminating in knobs or three rounded projections, a form generally adopted during the Middle Ages, the arms of the cross, showing as the earlier example delicate filigree ornamentation, are set with precious stones and cloisonne enamel plaques in floral and animal designs. The figure of the Christ, although in use in the East since the end of the seventh century, had not yet been added to the cross in Spain, which was venerated in its simple form during Visigothic times and for some centuries following. The pilgrimage city of Santiago de Compostela in the eleventh century be- came famous for the groups of artists established there, especially for its sculp- tors and workers in precious metals. In this centre, Don Diego Palaez founded in 1070 a college for goldsmiths where liturgical objects of gold, silver, and were made in great numbers. The contribution of the gold and silver- copper smith to ecclesiastical ornament and pomp may be read in a codex of the twelfth century, attributed to Calixtus the Second, in which he describes a religious processional in the city of the sacred apostle. Leading the procession the king in golden diadem carrying the royal sceptre embellished with was precious jewels, followed by the prelate holding the pontifical ivory staff, the bishops, and other members of the clergy. The seventy-five canons of Santiago were clothed in capes adorned with metal decoration; the priests wore silken dalmatics embroidered and brilliant with gems. They were bearing in their 180 GOLD AND SILVERWORK hands such articles of church plate as candlesticks, censers, crosses, evangelis- taries, and reliquaries, while others wheeled a silver altar on which were burn- ing candles offered by the devout. The description closes with a relation of the gala dress of the nobles and other persons whose costumes were not lacking in jewels and other rich adornments. Among the treasures in the shrine at Oviedo Cathedral dating from the tenth and twelfth centuries are the miniature diptych decorated with ivory figures and engraved gems, a gift of Bishop Gonzalo, and a casket known as the Area Sania for holding relics. The latter, measuring over three feet in length, is an excellent example of mediaeval silverwork. On the plates of the exterior are represented in repousse the Crucifixion and other religious scenes, which are bordered with an inscription in imitation of Kufic letters. The combination of Christian and Arabic forms in decoration which was being used by craftsmen of the eleventh century is shown on the historical chalice in the Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos. Semicircular arcades of Oriental design, outlined in filigree work characteristically Asturian, embellish both the bowl and the foot of the silver-gilt chalice which has an inscription bearing the name of its donor, Domingo, the first abbot of the Monastery. The entries of gifts from kings, noblemen, and clergy are numerous in the church inventories of this century; at the same time secular objects and articles of adorn- ment made from precious metal were becoming more generally used. Throughout the Chronicle of the Cid there are numerous references to drinking vessels of silver and gold, and to lances, shields, and other accoutrement richly embel- lished with these metals. * As the wars of the Reconquest restored the country to Spanish rule, the capitals of the various kingdoms, gaining in political power, became centres of artistic importance. With the establishment of the court of the Christian kings at León, the city grew famed for its skilled craftsmen. The Church of San Isidoro of León, rebuilt as a royal pantheon by Ferdinand the First, preserves a chalice presented by Doña Urraca, a daughter of this king. The work of an anon- ymous goldsmith of the last part of the eleventh century, the chalice is formed of agate with mountings of filigree adorned with gems and enamels. The latter, set in hollows cut out of the metal in a manner analogous to champleüè work, are of peculiar significance in tracing the history of this form of enameling technique. The setting of the stones and the filigree decoration on the chalice are indicative of the way the earlier traditions of the Visigothic period persisted in the work of the Spanish smith. Eleventh-century craftsmanship fashioned for Queen Felicia, wife of Sancho Ramírez, king of Aragón and Navarra, the silver-gilt book cover embellished with filigree, cabochons, gold cloisonne plaques, and an ivory carving of the Crucifixion. This object and another book cover of the same period bearing a similar design, now in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, were formerly in the Cathedral at Jaca. In the Museo Arqueológico Nacional, the Vich Museum, numerous museum 181 HISPANIC SOCIETY collections, and church treasuries throughout Spain are examples of pyxes, crucifixes, reliquary caskets, and other objects dating from the eleventh to the thirteenth century decorated in champlevé enamel in the same manner as ob- jects generally classified as œuvres de Limoges. During this period when reli- gious foundations were establishing contacts between France and the Peninsula, the kings of Spain had welcomed throughout the country the Benedictine monks of Cluny who, skilled as illuminators and as goldsmiths, fabricated in their monastic shops objects of great beauty. Trade and pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela by way of Limoges, itself a pilgrimage centre, and of Roncesvalles brought about further connections between the two countries. It would appear probable, moreover, that any extensive enamel industry at Limoges was depend- ent upon the mines of the northern kingdoms of mediaeval Spain for the copper necessary to produce this type of metal ornamentation. There are to be found in Spain the most distinguished examples extant of champlevé enamels on copper such as the superb altar frontal of the twelfth cen- tury from the Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos, now in the Burgos Museum, the retablo of San Miguel in Excelsis at Aralar, Navarra, and the fragments possibly from a chasse or a retablo in Orense Cathedral. While the Limousin origin of these and lesser works of enamel has in the past been acknowledged, there are scholars who, from a study of contemporary Spanish craftsmanship, postulate the theory that Spain was not only the source of many of these master- pieces of enameling but held precedence in the development of the art. In the treasury of Salamanca Cathedral rests the crucifix traditionally believed to have belonged to the Cid Campeador. Whether or not the object originated in France or was wrought by Spanish workers following imported models, the crucifix is typical of eleventh and twelfth- century work in Spain. Resembling this cru- cifix in size and workmanship is one in the museum of the Hispanic Society. The copper crucifix (R3010) is made, follow- ing the custom of the period, of a hollow half figure without a back. Formerly gilded, the crowned image has eyes of inlaid blue enamel; an enamel of a lighter blue alter- nating with gold stripes ornaments the skirt which falls from the waist to the knees. En- graved lines indicate the ribs and muscles of the body, the beard, and the hair beneath the R3010 ENAMELED CRUCIFIX crown. The feet fastened by single nails are Twelfth-thirteenth century shown in outline upon the suppedaneum. In this century there appeared contemporary with the representations of the Christ in this form, particularly in Cataluña, crucifixes known as "Majesties". The Redeemer erect upon the cross is represented in middle life with long hair 182 GOLD AND SILVERWORK and beard and clothed in a long-sleeved garment reaching to the feet. The elaboration of this robe forms one of the distinguishing features of these cruci- fixes ; rich brocades, cloths of gold and silver in the colours and elaborate designs of the time are shown on many examples such as that of the enameled Majestat in the Cathedral of Vich and the famous sculptured crucifix of Caldus de Montbuy. For the altars and treasuries of the great Gothic cathedrals that were being erected throughout León and Castilla in the latter part of the thirteenth and in the fourteenth century, the gold and silversmiths at the demand of kings and prelates fashioned an impressive number of ecclesiastical works of art, such as processional crosses, crucifixes, paxes, chalices, patens, reliquaries, and covers for books of the liturgy. During mediaeval times the reliquary was held in great veneration. From the eleventh century, triptych reliquaries were in general use in Spain, and whether destined for church or palace these little shrines for holding relics of the saints exhibited the highest artistic and industrial skill of their makers; varying in height and width from a few inches to several feet they were made of plates of gold and silver adorned with stones, of marble carved in relief, or of copper with enamel ornamentation. The finest piece of thirteenth- century silverwork extant is the triptych-reliquary, now bearing the title Tablas Alfonsinas, which Alfonso the Wise presented to the Cathedral of Sevilla in 1284. The silver-gilt plates of the triptych are ornamented with medallions depicting Bib- lical subjects alternating with the arms of León op and Castilla. In the diminutive windows and doors of the heraldic castles appears the pointed arch foreshadowing a transition to the Gothic style although Romanesque influence still domi- nates the object. Delicate ornamentation sur- rounds the small compartments of the interior in which are set the relics covered with rock crys- tal and encircled with enameled gold. It seems not improbable that the author of this triptych may have been Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who merited the praise of Alfonso in his Cantigas de Santa Maria. In the brilliant miniatures of the Cantigas the illuminator left a treasury of the art of the time. Throughout these paintings, rich in the depiction of contemporary costume and furni- End of the thirteenth ture, shine century golden crosses, chalices, candleholders, altar lamps, and crosiers. Dating from the period of the Cantigas, the end of the thirteenth century, is a processional crucifix (R3022) on exhibition at the Hispanic Society. The copper cross rising from a flattened globe-shaped 183 HISPANIC SOCIETY knop has trefoil terminations engraved with radial lines, and the whole object shows traces of gilding, a process used on all pieces which were to find a place upon the altar. The modeling of the figure of the Christ retains the outlines of earlier crucifixes. In this example the extremities are crudely made and the folds of the loin cloth rigid; the feet placed one over the other are fastened to the cross by a single nail. The suppedaneum, which previous to the thirteenth cen- tury in the greater number of examples supported the feet in juxtaposition, has now disappeared, although the small semicircular projections on the cross near the feet of the Christ are reminiscent of the original foot rest. Applied figures of Saint John and the Virgin Mary are riveted to the central arm, and the small holes would indicate that enameled or jeweled plaques were once attached to the arms of the cross as shown on similarly decorated ex- amples of the same period in the church of Cótar and the church of Salcedo. Belonging to this group of crosses is another example in the Museo Provincial at Valencia. In the thirteenth century the new forms of the ogival style, following French models, were being acclaimed by groups of wandering craftsmen. Congregating into companies, the metal workers formed associations known as brotherhoods and guilds which developed regulations both for the welfare of the artisans and for the improvement and protection of their craft. Ordinances were passed in the reign of Alfonso the Wise regarding the workers in gold, silver, and bronze. In the following century many privileges were accorded the gold and silver- smiths, especially in Cataluña, where the guilds were granted the right to elect their members on the anniversary day of Saint Eloy, the patron saint of all those who chose to practice the art of working in metals. Great splendour characterized the gold and silverwork of the fourteenth century. The ogival forms, applied in all their purity, gave to the metal work of the time an aspect of elegance obtained by the combination of beauty of line, openwork patterns, and fine pinnacles. In this period all the regions of the western Mediterranean competed with one another in the use of enamel over sunk relief. The tonality and transparency of the enamel over admirably carved figures and designs gave a chiaroscuro which rivaled in many instances the rich effects produced by precious stones and resembled in its pictorial values the stained glass in a cathedral. Although probably of Italian origin, trans- lucent enamels equally beautiful with those of Italy issued from the workshops of Avignon, Montpellier, Cataluña, Mallorca, Valencia, and Aragón. Due to the custom of affixing to objects the mark of the locality or the initials or monogram of the smith, it has been possible with the information found in contracts and documents to know the place of origin and the history of many rare pieces of silverwork. In Cataluña in this century the craftsmen were producing works of imposing grandeur culminating in the retablo of Gerona Cathedral, a work primarily constructed by Master Bartolomé between the years 1320 and 1325. The Valencian silversmith, Pere Berneç, left his mark on the predella which he added during the years of 1357-58; the cresting of later 184 GOLD AND SILVERWORK date is by Ramón Andreu, a silversmith of Gerona. The exquisitely carved reliefs in the many panels into which the work is divided and the translucent enamels of great merit on the canopies and the grounds of the panels bear wit- ness to the artistry of the Spanish smith. Resembling the technique of Berneç, although showing greater refinement of form and a simpler decoration, was the work of Pere Moragues, a silversmith and master sculptor of Barcelona. With the recent discovery of documents Moragues was established as the maker of the beautiful custodia for the miraculous wafers, the Corporales, of Daroca, which had been attributed to Consolí Blanch and various metal workers of the period. Peter the Fourth of Aragón, in a contract dated June 26th, 1382, gave the order for the custodia which was not completed until after his son, John the First, had ascended the throne. When it became the custom in the fourteenth century to show the Eucharist to the popu- lace or congregation, the sacred wafer was generally placed between two pieces of cir- cular glass. The circular holder in the Daroca example rests on a rectangular cabi- net which is supported by an ogival stem and flaring base. In its form and proportions it is a forerunner of the great custodias which were soon to appear in the shape of shrines or tabernacles in the Corpus Christi procès- sions. The work bears the mark of the city of Zaragoza where Pere Moragues was en- gaged at the time working on the tomb of Teresa de Entenza, mother of Peter the Fourth, and where he had previously com- pleted the tomb for the Archbishop Lope Fernández de Luna. Between the latter and the custodia of Daroca there are certain resemblances; the architectural canopies on the sarcophagus are designed like those over the little statuettes on the side of the custodia, ENAMELED ALTAR CRUCIFIX and meticulous representations of the em- Fourteenth century broideries on the costume, although of sculptured marble, are indicative of a silversmith's technique. Suggestive of the work of Pere Moragues and appearing to have been fash- ioned by a hand equally deft, is the example in the Hispanic Museum of an altar crucifix (R3015) which by its technical excellence and the rich colouring of the enamel work denotes the labour of a master craftsman. Patriarchal in form, the surface of the cross proper is embellished with a foliage design of champlevé enamel in brown, green, blue, gold, or honey colour. The quatrefoil medallions 185 HISPANIC SOCIETY on the extremities are of translucent enamel against backgrounds of lapis blue; on the reverse the medallions bear the images of the four evangelists, and those on the obverse the representations of Christ enthroned in Majesty, and a skull, the symbol of Golgotha. On the first transverse is the legend in lapis blue on the gold ground, ihesus nazarenus recx iudegru^î 11] The finely modeled figure of the Christ and the carvings on the Gothic stem which sup- ports the crucifix recall the tech- nique of Moragues. Around the ilar- ing base or foot which is lobed and edged by architectural mouldings runs an inscription in Gothic lettering: ecce lingnum isi'c] crucis.in. quo. salus. mundi. pependit. venite.adoremus:. The elegance that translucent enamel work attained in Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was shown when many specimens of cru- cifixes, chalices, patens, and other objects were gathered for the Exposi- ción retrospectiva de arte at Zaragoza in 1908. Among these pieces of metal work, many of which were previously R3015 Detail of crucifix unknown and unclassified, were the richly enameled processional crosses from Linares and Cuencabuena in Teruel, and the chalice and paten belonging to Lope Fernández de Luna, the archbishop of Zaragoza. Although translucent enamels were replacing champlevé work in the four- teenth century, objects continued to show decorations of the earlier process similar to the enamel work on the gilded copper crucifix (R3012) in the col- lection of the Hispanic Society. The cross which resembles two examples in the Burgos exhibition of 1921, one belonging to the church of Hontanas and the other to the church of Poza de la Sal, is incised on both surfaces with a flowing design of acanthus leaves against a background of zigzag hatchings. Applied to the cross are the figures in half relief of the Christ, an angel with outspread wings at the upper extremity, the Virgin Mary and Saint John on the horizontal arms, and at the base, Adam rising from the tomb. Ejigraved plaques embellished with champlevé enamel in black sown with white dots and touches of red enamel are also riveted to the arms below the fleurdelisé extremities ; above the head of the Christ is the inscription on a horizontal and a diagonal band in Gothic lettering: avema ihsa , at the right and left the representations of the Good and Bad Thief, and at the foot of the crucifix, Christ descending into Limbo. Similarly enameled is the square at the centre on the reverse of the cross illustrating Christ enthroned in Majesty; winged symbols of the evangelists are engraved on the extremities. The Lázaro y Galdiano Collection at Madrid pos- 186 GOLD AND SILVERWORK sesses a crucifix which, except for a few slight deviations, resembles closely the one belonging to the Society. These and numerous other specimens of this type of crucifix with analogous champlevé plaques and decoration dating from the end of the thirteenth century to the fifteenth would suggest that they issued from the same atelier or centre of production. The enamel work of Cataluña and Aragón during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries can be differenti- ated from work of other provinces by the singular shades and colours which the gold and silversmiths obtained in their enamels. The tones of honey, blue, and green have their special tints. Particularly marked was the predilection for red, white, and black which although of less transparency than other colours gave an air of sumptuousness to the objects upon R3012 which they were used. To the of CRUCIFIX art Fourteenth-fifteenth century enameling Mallorca contributed many distinguished pieces. Among these are the ciborium in the Cathedral of Ibiza and the beautiful chalice of Saint Vincent of Sevilla in the Spitzer Collection. Notable objects in gold and silver were made by the native smiths, Ramón Frau and Bartolomé Ponce, for the Cathedral at Palma de Mallorca. The richness of gold and silverwork in Aragón may be traced to the influence of the Luna family and their interest in all forms of art that contributed to the beauty and splendour of the ceremonies of the church. Through the munificence of the Antipope, Pedro de Luna, there were executed many fine pieces of eccle- siastical plate during the latter part of the century. In the treasury of La Seo, Zaragoza, are the colossal silver busts in repousse of Saint Valerius, Saint Vincent, and Saint Laurence adorned with precious stones and enamels. Although these objects, the gift of the Antipope, were brought from Avignon, they could not have been without effect in the development of the metal crafts in the Zaragozan regions. Evidence of the fine technical skill of the period are the pieces once belonging to this pope, known as Benedict the Thirteenth, such as the enameled reliquary at Peñíscola, the chalice and paten in the Cathedral at Tortosa, and the sword preserved in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional. Excellent examples of fourteenth-century work in precious metal exist in the churches of León and Castilla. At Santiago is a head of repousse silver en- riched with gems representing the Apostle Saint James. The gold collar placed around the neck of the Apostle according to legendary belief was donated 187 HISPANIC SOCIETY by the fifteenth-century knight, Suero de Quiñones, after he had completed his celebrated Passo Honroso at the Bridge of Orbigo, near the city of León. The Cathedral at Sevilla possesses, among other fourteenth-century examples, a cup of rock crystal, a gift of the Archbishop Don Pedro Barroso, and a silver image of the Virgin de la Sede, the work, according to documents, of the Sevillian goldsmith, Sancho Muñoz. That secular work, jewels, and objects for table service, constituted a con- siderable portion of the silversmiths' contracts, contemporary wills, documents, and inventories give ample proof. The affluence of royal households was mani- fested during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by silver table plate or vajillas made by expert craftsmen of the time. The counts of Ampurias in 1380 possessed a service composed of many pieces, a tureen in the form of a boat engraved with the family escutcheon, pitchers, cups, plates, and among other objects a goblet with an enameled cover. Barcelona was noted for its custom of presenting table plate to visiting princes and kings, and the Archivo Municipal of this city has preserved the inventories of these donations including the mag- nificent gifts which were made for Ferdinand and Isabel. In the Catalan romances Curial e Guelfa and Tirant lo Blanch of the fifteenth century, one may find in the descriptions of the social life of the time detailed accounts of the silver plate used on the tables of the aristocracy and the jewels then in vogue among the lords and ladies of the court, such as the heavy golden chains and girdles, bracelets, rings, earrings, and brooches set with pearls and other precious stones. Narrations of royal visits and princely gatherings reveal the fondness for ostentation that existed in spite of the sumptuary laws which the Spanish sovereigns from time to time imposed in an endeavour to check extravagance in dress and personal adornment. The plateros of Barcelona in the fifteenth century gained widespread renown for the merit of their work. During this period when the Kingdom of Aragón in- eluded the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, the brisk Mediterranean trade in which the Catalan merchants were engaged, favoured the exportation to these islands of Spanish textiles, carvings, manuscripts, and painted panels as well as objects of gold and silver. Contemporary Sicilian metal work especially affects the decorative motives of these importations from the workshops of Cataluña. An enameled copper plate bearing in relief the head of Christ, in the Church of San Giovanni Decollato at Palermo, is the product of a Sicilian crafts- man who it would appear received his inspiration from some fine piece of Catalan carving. Towards the middle of the century two Spanish silversmiths were established at Rome, Pedro Díez from Cataluña, and Antonio Pérez de las Celias who, although known in Italy as El Catalán, declared himself to be from Zaragoza. The latter, winning approval among the skilled orfebres at the Papal court, received the important commission from his compatriot, Calixtus the Third, for two golden roses, one of which was presented by the Pope to Charles the Seventh, King of France. To these silversmiths were also assigned the fashioning of costly swords which the Pope bestowed upon kings and princes 188 GOLD AND SILVERWORK PROCESSIONAL CRUCIFIX Fifteenth century 189 HISPANIC SOCIETY throughout Christendom; Pedro Díez was the maker of the sword given to the Castilian monarch, Henry the Fourth, the blade of which still exists in the Armoury at Madrid. In the category of silver masterpieces ranks a work of the early part of the century known as King Martin's chair, a name originating from the supposition that the chair, serving as a throne, originally belonged to this King, although proof of the ownership is lacking. The high-arched back, the arms in the form of volutes, and the arcaded base are wrought entirely of silver carved in the purest Gothic style. This chair, to-day among the treasures in the Cathedral at Barcelona, is carried in the annual procession through the streets at the time of the Corpus Christi festival serving as a support for the great custodia. Fifteenth-century silversmiths repeated in their works the ogival forms of the preceding century. Testimony of the taste and technique of the period is the beautifully wrought monstrance made by Francisco Asís Artau in 1458, in Gerona Cathedral, and a similar example in the Cathedral at Palència. On silver images and statues the naturalistic tendencies developed in sculpture were apparent, and for the decoration of surfaces, replacing the earlier and varied vegetal ornamentation, were generally adopted engraved or lightly em- bossed, stylized vine patterns. Translucent enamel work, especially during the first part of the century, continued to add a sumptuous appearance to numerous pieces of church plate. Crucifixes in a great number of instances were decorated with quatrefoil medallions garnished with brilliant enamels or engravings of saints, symbols of the evangelists, or scenes drawn from the repertoire of Bib- lical history. Typifying the design and elaboration of contemporary crucifixes is the ex- ample (R30I3) now in the museum of the Hispanic Society. The cross, origi- nating in the atelier of a Barcelonese silversmith, is made of a wooden core sheathed with plates of silver embossed with a vine-leaf design in relief against a granulated ground; the arms terminate in fleurs-de-lis, and enriching the outlines of the cross is a beaded moulding bordered by square leaf crockets which have been carved around the entire outer edge of the silver plates. The figure of the Redeemer, finely modeled in full relief, rests against the square plaque at the centre which is engraved with a representation of the Christ enthroned in Majesty. A plaque similarly placed on the reverse bears the scene of the Last Supper, and engraved quatrefoil medallions appear on the arms of both the front and reverse side of the cross. The flattened spherical knop into which the cross fits is decorated with lozenge-shaped bosses enriched with champlevé enamel showing an heraldic bird in black outlined in gold against a red ground, a coat of arms resembling that of the Colom family of Barcelona, The maker of this crucifix, although leaving no trace of his own name, repeated the mark of the city of Barcelona (+ rck) ori the terminals of the cross. In- viting comparison with this example is the crucifix of the same period em- bellished with translucent enamel work and engraved with the mark of the same city in the Church of Valdeconejos, Teruel. A crucifix in the Church 190 GOLD AND SILVERWORK of Cuencabuena, Teruel, showing the stamp of Daroca, is also similar in out- line and construction. Simpler in design and less rich in workmanship than example R3013 are the crucifixes R4002 and R3014 of the end of the I—,, for costly offerings to enrich altars and treasuries «-iJ R4002 entirely for ecclesiastical patrons. By the close of CRUCIFIX Middle Ages the Fifteenth Spanish orfebres had con- century tnmbuteid a succès- sion of objects of high artistic worth to the grandeur and sumptuousness of an age when all artists, the painters of the great retablos as well as the sculptors of the polychromed images and altar frontals, strove to give to their crea- tions the illusion and richness of gold combined with the varying colours of precious stones. In the sixteenth century when religious fer- vour, intensified by the return to Christian Spain of the Kingdom of Granada, was manifested in more costly and elegant offerings for the church, the New World was contributing its bounty in gold and silver. While every form of ecclesiastical ornament was fashioned from this store of wealth, the massive shrines or custodias to hold the monstrance in the processionals of Corpus Christi best represented the art of R3014 the silversmith in building and sculpturing in PROCESSIONAL CRUCIFIX metal. Fifteenth century Enrique de Arfe, a native of Germany, signed a contract in 1506 to make 191 HISPANIC SOCIETY a custodia for the Cathedral of León. This shrine together with those of similar construction for Córdoba, Sahagún, and Toledo exhibited so delicate a skill in working with silver that Master Enrique may be said to have initiated the movement, especially in Castilla and León, for the building of magnificent custodias. Characterizing his work, which had the delicacy and transparency of metallic lace, were the details made by the cire perdue process and so combined with chiseled, polished, and unpolished portions that they re- fleeted varying series of light and colour. Arfe's masterpiece, ordered by Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros for the Cathedral at Toledo, represents a Gothic temple adorned with skillfully executed statues and carvings depicting scenes from the life of the Saviour. In designing these shrines Arfe possibly had as precedent the Gothic wooden towers that were made in Flanders to enshrine the Sacrament. As the term "custodia" in Spain was R3039 used for both the monstrance and the temple en- PAX 16th closing it, the former as a means of distinction was Late 15th-early century generally designated as the t>iril, or custodia de mano. Although not the work of his hand. Arfe placed in the custodia of Toledo a viril made, it is believed, at the command of Queen Isabel from the first gold to reach Spain from the New World. On a number of panels at the base of the Toledan custodia. Arfe engraved as his device an abbreviation of his first name, IÑRI. It would seem probable that a slight variation of his mark is the one incised on a silver-gilt pax (R3039) in the collection of the Hispanic Society. Bearing the letters AÑRI, «M«í, engraved on the reverse, the pax is in the flamboyant Gothic style that Master Enrique adopted in his work, and has in the central panel in high relief a representation of the Descent from the Cross surmounted by two canopies of tracery and terminated by a gable ending in a fleuron. Bands of openwork decoration, wrought in a manner similar to that on the base of the pax, characterize the decoration on the custodia of Sahagún, and also the richly carved processional cross, the latter, in the Church of San Isidoro, León, attributed to Enrique de Arfe. Belonging like the pax to the late fifteenth or early years of the sixteenth century is a silver censer (R3081) in the R3081 CENSER Hispanic Museum. On a shallow, circular bowl rests a hex- Late I5th-early 16th agonal cover built in the form of a Gothic turret ending in a century pierced and crocketed spire. Characteristic of these little censers, even at a later 192 GOLD AND SILVERWORK date, were the ogival forms which were retained in their structure and decoration. During at least the first third of the century silversmiths held to Gothic patterns or combined them with the new Ren- aissance ornamentation. The silver-gilt chalice (R3082) on exhibition at the Hispanic Society affords an example of this transitional period. Adorning the openwork calyx of the bowl are flowers, birds, masks, and balusters of Renais- sanee style, expressed also in the repousse decora- tion on the foot, while the stem remains Gothic in form. A mark, engraved on one of the lobes of the hexagonal foot, suggesting an aqueduct may refer to the city of Segovia as the place where the chalice originated. The works issuing from the shops of the gold and silversmiths were reproductions, in miniature, of the architectural structures which served as r3082 their models. So faithfully did these artificers in chalice metal portray the minute decoration of classical Sixteenth century forms of the first part of the century that the term "plateresque" came in turn to be applied to the architectural style of the time. The designs of animal forms, cherub heads, masks, and flowing scrolls were realistically portrayed by the silversmith in repousse and elaborately chased surfaces. In many instances the metal craftsmen achieved in modeling precious metal a plastic beauty equal to that of the sculptor. It was not unusual for the sculptors to serve an apprenticeship with the silversmith or for the smith to seek their collaboration as shown on the custodia made by Pedro Lamaisón for La Seo at Zaragoza. The statues adorning this shrine were the work of the celebrated sculptor, Damián Forment. The finely wrought figures in the crucifixion scene placed within the architectural frame of the silver parcel-gilt pax (R3038) denote the skill achieved by an accredited artist. The fig- ures of the Christ and those of the Virgin Mary and Saint John are sculptured in high relief and are shown before a background engraved with a representation of the city of Jerusalem. Stamped on the backplate of the pax are the letters ba preceded by a cross, the mark of the city of Barcelona. While this city and other flourishing centres in Cataluña and Valencia produced objects of rare beauty, offering affiliations with Italian work, the output during this period was less 193 HISPANIC SOCIETY brilliant than that of the two preceding centuries. The flow of commerce in the Mediterranean had, with the discovery of America, turned to Castilla. To this part of Spain came craftsmen, painters, and sculptors among them Flemish artisans drawn not only through political connections with the Nether- lands, but by a growing demand for artistic work of all kinds. Schools producing fine craftsmen in precious metal became traditional at León, Burgos, Toledo, Sevilla, Valladolid, Córdoba, and Granada. A disciple of Enrique de Arfe, Juan Ruiz of Córdoba, was the first silver- smith to introduce the use of the lathe in working with silver. Especially was this innovation put to great use by the builders of the large custodias in construct- ing the many balusters and colonnettes that the architectural style demanded. Antonio de Arfe, the son of Enrique, was the author of the custodias for Santiago de Compostela and Medina de Rioseco which were done in the plateresque style, and Antonio's son, Juan, gave to Spain superb examples of his craftsman- ship in the great custodias for Avila, Burgos, Valladolid, and Sevilla. These shrines conforming to the Graeco-Roman phase that architecture followed during the latter part of the century, when grouped with the work of the other two members of the Arfe family, show the progression of art throughout the entire sixteenth century. Comparable to the Arfe dynasty of sculptor-silversmiths at León was the Becerril family working at Cuenca. Beginning with the year 1522 the names of the two brothers Alonso and Francisco Becerril appear in contracts of this city as makers of ecclesiastical plate. With these silversmiths, Cristóbal, the son and pupil of Francisco, is known to have laboured in constructing the pro- cessional shrine for the Cathedral of Cuenca. About this work, which previous to its destruction during the Wars of Independence was one of the monuments of the silversmith's craft, Juan de Arfe wrote that there was used in its con- struction "all that men knew in Spain at that time". Cristóbal, following his appointment as silversmith to the chapter of the cathedral in 1573, was com- missioned to build a custodia for the parish church of San Juan at Alarcón. This custodia (R3019), now in the collection of the Hispanic Society, is inscribed with a legend giving the date of completion as 1585. The armorial bearings of the bishops who held office while Becerril was constructing the shrine, Caspar de Quiroga, Rodrigo de Castro, and Gómez Zapata are engraved on the floor and base of the first story. In building this ornament which covered a period at least of eight years Becerril adopted for the first two quadrangular stories the use of the Corinthian and Ionic orders with a domical treatment for the third. A base of lapis lazuli supports the shrine. The finely modeled statues of the evangelists in the upper section and the embossings of angels and al- legorical figures in the spandrels of the arches of the first story gain prominence by being in silver gilt placed against backgrounds of silver, thus presenting a contrast of metals which adds a richness to the appearance of the object. In 1789 Ponz in his Viage de España wrote of this custodia describing the viril held by four angels that has since disappeared; he stated that he preferred this 194 GOLD AND SILVERWORK CUSTODIA 1585 BY CRISTOBAL BECERRIL 195 HISPANIC SOCIETY work in form to the one in the Cathedral at Cuenca although the latter was of greater proportions and more sumptuous in ornamentation. The engraved and embossed enrichments of clusters of fruit, cherub heads, masks, and swags of drapery on the custodia, Becerril executed in a variety of designs with the deft manipulation of a master. The richness and harmony of the work as a whole is a splendid example of this type of orna- ment which held artistic supremacy among all the many pieces of liturgical plate. Through their elab- oration in great numbers by renowned silversmiths throughout the Peninsula sixteenth-century Spain won the appellation of the "age of the custodia" Before the altar or in the magnificent processionals of Corpus Christi these silver or golden-hued shrines for the Sacrament were testimonials alike to the munificence of their donors and to the dexterity of those who wrought in precious metal. Another class of objects for religious use, possibly R3046 RELIQUARY next in importance to the custodias, on which silver- Sixteenth century smiths lavished intricate patterns of repousse work and chasing were the imposing reliquary busts of monumental type. Images of saints in almost natural size were a favourite product of the Zaragozan metal workers. The silversmith Andrés Marcuello executed in the purest plateresque style of the time the bust of Saint Bias in the Church of San Pablo at Zaragoza; also believed to be the work of this smith is the one of Bishop Gaudioso in Tarragona Cathedral. The painted faces of these silver figures having eyes of enamel and gilded hair present the lifelike appearance of polychrome sculpture. Crosses, statues, urns, little chests, pendants, and jewels were likewise fashioned as repositories for saintly relics. For many reliquaries the form adopted was that of the monstrance or ostensorium in which the venerated remains were exposed to view. The cylindrical form of the receptacle, typical of many Gothic monstrances, is retained in the small reliquary (R3046) in the Hispanic Museum. In this example the hexagonal turret, wrought of panels of rock crystal set in copper gilt, is supported by a three-sided foot decorated with dolphins on the chamfered angles and on the panels between with incised floral and leaf patterns against a stippled ground. Statues of the Virgin and Child and those representing patron saints of churches, monasteries, brotherhoods, and guilds were frequently wrought in silver. A statue of Saint Francis (R3056) in the Society's collection belonged at one time to a guild of shoemakers, judging from the symbols of the shoe, awl, and shoemaker's knife embossed on the nimbus which is attached to the figure. As patron saint of this guild it was the custom to bear a statue of Saint Francis 196 GOLD AND SILVERWORK in the processionals during the Corpus Christi festivals. Of the latter part of the century this work by an anonymous smith repre- sents the saint in the habit of the Franciscan order with a tonsure or monastic crown, and on the hands and feet the marks of the stigmata. Documents herald the names of gold and silversmiths otherwise unknown, a number of whom were favoured by commissions from the Crown. In the manuscript collection of the Hispanic Society there is a royal order signed on the thirtieth day of May, 1519, by Charles the Fifth at Barcelona and addressed to his treasurers in which Joan Ferandez de Villalón is appointed silversmith to the King and his house at a salary of three Barcelonese sueldos for each day's work. The testaments of sovereigns and noble personages speak eloquently of their patronage of the orfebres. The gifts that Philip the Second made to the Escorial from 1571 to 1598, as recorded in its inventory, were numerous and of a sumptuous character: reliquaries, paxes, chalices and patens, custodias, chrismatories, wafer boxes, lamps, candelabra, and other objects STATUE OF SAINT FRANCIS destined for the Sixteenth century service of the ^ church. All that pertained to the furniture of the altar was multiplied in such great numbers by able craftsmen throughout the country that M ^ bytheendof the century the treasuries of many parish churches such as that of Marchena in , Sevilla were worthy of a cathedral. incense boat Fashioned for use in the service of the sixteenth century altar are two small objects in the Hispanic Museum, an incense boat or navet (R3087) wrought of silver and decorated with a bold foliage design embossed on the surface, and a box (R3074) in the form of a rectangular chest which was probably used to hold salt for the baptism. The latter of silver gilt is I ornamented with an engraved symmetrical design 1 in low relief of foliage, strap, and scrollwork. BOX Sixteenth-century craftsmen delighted in apply- sixteenth century ing their skill to the making of small and delicate creations. Rock crystal, a substance highly esteemed for such purposes, was also 197 HISPANIC SOCIETY popular with connoisseurs of the Renaissance. Holding a prominent place among the applied arts of the Middle Ages, crystal carv- ing reached in this period a development of even greater perfection. Mounts of gold and silver, frequently adorned with stones and enamels, were a distinctive feature of these crystals which were prized for their rarity and sparkling beauty as well as for the magical qualities believed to be inherent in the crystal it- self. The cross (R3009) in the Society's collection is illustrative of the manner in which this medium was combined with precious metal as an accès- sory. Rings or bands of ornamental silver gilt form the transition between the plain, cylindrical rods and faceted knobs of the arms of the cross, which meet at the centre in a double cartouche embossed on one side with a crown of thorns and on the other with the wounds of Christ; the crystal base, carved with a series of concave CROSS OF ROCK CRYSTAL flutings, is set within an indented rim of gilded Sixteenth century silver. Crosses carved from crystal may be found in a number of cathedral treasuries as those of Huesca, Barcelona, Tarragona, Zaragoza, and Valladolid. Enriching the collection of the Escorial is a crystal vase garnished with silver gilt, which Philip the Second purchased for one hundred ducats from his silversmith Juan Rodriguez de Babia at Toledo in 1586. The Museo del Prado possesses choice examples of table service in rock crystal: cups, candelabra, jars, and ewers sculptured and engraved with fishes and fantastic birds. Lapidaries excelled in cutting and engraving crystal and precious stones for the adornment of jewels and other objects. Among the artists from Milan that Philip the Second summoned to Spain when building the Escorial was the renowned gem engraver Jacopo da Trezzo who became sculptor and jeweler to the King and who worked not only for the royal family but for many of the noble households connected with the court. The magnificent casket in the Escorial, a gift from Catherine of Savoy to her sister the Infanta Isabel, has embellishments of engraved crystal plaques which were the work of Milanese artists, the Sarachi brothers, who had collaborated with the silversmith, Gio- vanni Croce, in decorating the object. The inventory made in 1559 of the jewels of Isabel, queen of Philip the Second, describes vases, a reliquary and candelabra, caskets, rings, earrings, and buttons decorated with little crowns of brilliant red, which were all fashioned of rock crystal ornamented with mountings of enamrled gold. A later account of the Queen's jewels lists an elaborate girdle adoened with thirty-two pieces of crystal. Jewels were as exquisitely wrought as the ornaments that beautified the 198 GOLD AND SILVERWORK ceremonies of the church. The scale in which it was necessary to make each piece of jewelry so as to be effective on the large and voluminous costumes of the day gave opportunity to the goldsmiths to present each object as a piece of miniature sculpture. Especially was this true of the pend- ants reproducing little cupids, ships, dolphins, dragons, or other animal forms that were dis- tinguished for the great delicacy of their execu- tion. Chasing, damascening, and enamel work were lavishly used on the jewels of the period; filigree work appeared, though less frequently than in the following century. Favourite motives of the headdresses, earrings, brooches, collars, and girdles then in vogue were the medallions of Sixteenth century translucent enamel alternating with those of precious stones of which the pearl held a predominant place. These rich accessories of costume Sanchez Coello made resplendent in his paintings of the noble ladies and princesses of the court of Philip the Second. Towards the middle of the century, the technique of painted enamels, re- placing that of translucent work, was practiced with distinction at Zaragoza and in the southern part of the province. Specimens of the work of this region are the retallos in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional and in the collection of Toribio del Campillo at Madrid. The two paxes, one in the Church of Santa Cruz and the other in the Church of Portillo at Zaragoza, and a third belonging to a church in the village of Belchite are brilliant examples of this medium. The crosses from the churches of Burgo de Ebro and Crivillén are enriched with painted medallions, the former showing miniature landscapes drawn with great delicacy. These objects, the work of Zaragozan craftsmen, are stamped with the mark of the city of Zaragoza: a lion rampant preceding the Gothic letters ces , the first syllable of its Latin name, Caesaraugusta. There are in the Hispanic Museum two objects for utilitarian purposes bear- ing the stamp of Zaragoza, a silver box (R3073), possibly for jewels, ornamented with a repousse dec- oration of dragons, vases, flowers, and arabesques, a work of the early part of the century, and a cir- cular saltcellar (R3055). The latter of silver gilt stands on three feet made in the form of volutes. It seems probable that this object was a section belong- ing to a standing salt similar to R3054, the three divisions of which are one the SALTCELLAR superimposed upon Sixteenth century other, the two lower members having circular bowls for the salt, and the top segment a pepper shaker surmounted with a pierced cupola. This form was typical of many examples constructed in a like manner. A standing salt resembling R3054 in outline, 199 HISPANIC SOCIETY although of a later design with a triangular top and handle, appears in the painting of The Repast attributed to Velazquez in the museum at Budapest. The ornamentation known as flat embossing which appears on the two salts in the Hispanic Museum was used as a decoration on many sur- faces of silver plate. As a means of making engrav- ing more effective the designs of arabesques, in- terlacing straps, or other motives were burnished while sinking and matting the surrounding backgrounds. As a result of this method the patterns so burnished appeared to have slightly undulating surfaces. This process was used on the strapwork medallion decorating the slightly raised centre of the plain, circular dish (R3037) in the Hispanic Collection. The dish, resting on a low foot with a design of oval indentions be- tween crosses, was the work of a silversmith of STANDING SALT Cervera as testified by the letters cerv , the Sixteenth century mark of the city, stamped near the rim of the bowl. Further examples of the type of flat embossing are afforded by the decora- tive bands on the ewers R3041 and R3043, and the surface of the incense boat R3087. On the greater number of pieces of plate, as on the dish R3037, appears the small, wavy line known as the burilado from the graver or buril used by the official assayers to remove a small quantity of metal in order to make the test for the purity of silver. Under the regulation of the silversmiths' guilds any object not conforming to the law in respect to silver, as stated in the ordinances, was required to be melted down. Endeavouring also to maintain artistic and technical standards, among other provisions, the regulations prescribed that a silversmith might open a workshop only after having shown proof by the actual making of an object that he was a master in his creift and had matriculated from the guild school in the town where he had formerly worked or resided. The city of Barcelona preserves in the library of the Museus d'art de Catalunya the examination books, or libros de pasantía, of the silversmiths' guild from the opening of the sixteenth century until the year 1833. In these volumes are gathered not only the names and interesting facts about the lives of these master craftsmen, but also the de- signs and drawings of objects executed by them in gold and silver which show a de- velopment of style and taste for a period of more than three hundred years. The inventory of the possessions belonging to Beltran de la Cueva, third 200 p GOLD AND SILVERWORK duke of Alburquerque, made in 1560, registers silver vessels and utensils wrought for table service such as saltcellars, urns, water flagons, ewers and basins, trenchers, and other articles. With spoons and knives is the entry of four small silver forks, one large silver fork, and another of silver gilt with the head of a woman terminating the handle. Forks, which were just coming into use in this century, were a special feature of the works of Cordovan silversmiths. Among the pieces of domestic plate of the Renaissance the ewer and its ac- companying dish became, through their importance in the ceremony of the table, objects of special attention. Not only the goldsmiths, but the potters, enamelers, and pewterers of all European countries expended their highest skill in fash- ioning these vessels, with the result that the ewer and its companion might be considered as representing a standard of excellence which the respective crafts- men sought to attain. While the dish remained more or less uniform in size, the shapes and outlines of the ewer were varied. In favour during the first part of the century were ewers with oviform bodies, high, incurving necks, and scrolled handles. Towards the close of the six- teenthcentury the silversmiths, prin- cipally those at Toledo, were mak- ing small ewers which, marked by definite character- R3041 istics, were to re- EWER R3043 main in un- EWER End of vogue sixteenth century til the middle of End of sixteenth century the next century. The two examples of these Spanish ewers (R3041, R3043) in the Hispanic Museum show the distinctive features of these vessels, the cylindrical shape resting on the low foot, the harp-shaped handle, the gro- tesque mask under the large spout, and the decorated band or frieze on the plain surface of the body. Of the same form are a number of French and English ewers of the second half of the seventeenth century. The Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan at Madrid possesses a ewer closely akin to R3041 as well as others showing scroll handles with decorations of applied straps and arabesques. One of these specimens is stamped with the lamb of the Golden Fleece, the device of Toledo, and another in the palace at Madrid is similarly marked. A num- her of ewers were made with domed covers and were frequently decorated with enamel medallions. Like many other pieces of domestic plate, examples of these little receptacles are occasionally found in church treasuries ; the Church of Santa Maria in Llanes, Oviedo, exhibits among its sacred objects one resembling R3041 in the Society. Also similar is a ewer in the Lázaro Collection, Madrid, which has been given the title oí jarro bautismal. These ewers symbolize the work of the late Renaissance when surfaces re- 201 HISPANIC SOCIETY mained smooth, sometimes decorated with graven lines or embellished with little plaques or rings in relief or with enameled medallions geometrically distributed over the ob- ject. This treatment is further exemplified by the two objects in the museum of the Hispanic Society, a monstrance (R3029) and a crosier (R3065). On the baluster stem and base of the copper-gilt mon- strance are placed at intervals silver medallions in dark blue enamel with a design in reverse in metal; engraved and pounced scrollwork borders each of the medallions which vary in size and are of oval, conical, and rectangu- lar shapes. Contrasting with the colour of these enamel disks are the stones in blue, green, r3029 and red on the circular monstrance band of the monstrance Late 16th-early 17th century proper and those of red, white, and green, faceted, and set in the stars ter- minating the pointed rays. The knop and crook of the gilded brass crosier show decorations of enamel medallions in green, orange, and purple which are surrounded by panels of foliated scrollwork. Characteristic of both secular and ecclesiastical r3065 CROSIER vessels of the last part of the sixteenth and especially (Detail) of the first half of the following century were Seventeenth century these little applied disks or panels of enamel. The silver paten (R3034) is an- other example of the seventeenth century showing this form of decorative treat- ment, while embellishing the centre of the dish are the engraved armorial bear- ings of the Bracamonte family of Castilla. During the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabel and succeeding monarchs the large number of objects of all kinds fabricated in gold and silver had brought forth royal decrees in an attempt to check the ex- travagant use of precious metal. In the r3034 paten sumptuary laws of 1594 and 1600 it was Seventeenth century forbidden to decorate cabinets, caskets, and other pieces of furniture with silver; specifications were given limiting the 202 GOLD AND SILVERWORK jewels to be worn by both men and women. Exempting pieces for religious use, the laws prohibited the making of objects in gold and silver, permitting only those for drinking purposes, which were not to exceed three marks in weight. The futility of these laws and subsequent restrictions passed in the seventeenth century may be inferred from the documents describing the extravagant display, to which the silversmiths contributed, attendant upon such festivities as the entrance of Margaret of Austria into Madrid, and from the records of the vast treasuries of jewels and plate in the houses of wealthy grandees, as well as those of the sovereigns themselves. Seventeenth-century ornamentation, expressing a reaction to the austere taste of the period of Philip the Second, was marked by the return of floral motives which covered the entire surface of an object. In the greater number of pieces made in this century there was lacking the monumental character, based on architectural proportions, that distinguished the work of Juan de Arfe and his contemporaries, and no such important works in metal were undertaken as those which marked the period of the Renaissance. Although silverwork of artistic worth depreciated throughout Spain, the goldsmiths at Zaragoza and those surrounding the court produced pieces of great technical merit. The seventeenth-century smiths at Córdoba maintained a high standard of work. Testimony of having passed examinations in this city was sufficient for a crafts- man to gain admission to any workshop in Spain. Among its skilled metal workers was Lucas Valdés, possibly a relative of Juan de Valdés Leal who painted The Virgin of the Sihersmiihs for the cofradía of Cordovan silversmiths. In this painting and that of The Entry of Saint Ferdinand into Sevilla, the artist, who it is believed served in his youth an appren- ticeship with a silversmith, portrayed with great elaboration objects of gold and silver. Contrary to the character of the jewels of the previous century emphasis was now given to the lavish use of precious stones, notably diamonds and pearls, rather than to the composition of the gold and silver mountings in which brilliantly coloured gems were used as an accessory. Fili- gree work, continuing earlier Moorish traditions, dominated in the decoration of jewels which Córdoba, followed by Salamanca and Astorga, produced in great quantities. In the Victoria and Albert Museum, displayed among the specimens of Spanish jewelry of this period, are examples of earrings, crosses, and breast ornaments of gold and silver filigree. A distinctive feature of many pieces of con- temporary silverwork was the contrast of colour obtained by the extensive use of enamel sometimes combined with precious and semiprecious stones. Repre- 203 HISPANIC SOCIETY sentative of this manner of ornamentation is the pax (R3040) in the collection, a work probably of the first third of the century, which presents a Pieta enclosed within a frame of silver gilt. The swags of fruit decorating the caryatids on the latter are painted in red, green, blue, and amber coloured enamel. Touches of enamel also appear on the halo and cherub's wings surmounting the pediment. The Pieth shows the figure of the Virgin Mary in red mantle and blue cape, and the Christ in gold repousse against an enameled background of gray green shading into pale pink. Embellishing the rim of the gold paten (R3033) are medallions in cloisonne blue enamel set within cartouches and engraved panels of foliated scroll- work. Little enamel panels also garnish the bands of the rosace, outlined in repousse strapwork at the centre of the paten, combined with stones, green and pale pink in colour, in square and rectangular settings. The central disk is encrusted with white and red enamel. The baroque patterns of foliage, single open flowers and buds, acanthus leaves, and sheaves of flowers and fruit made effective and pleasing ornamenta- tion on many pieces of silver plate, although the tendency to excessive decora- tion marked by the repetition of the same motives or fixed patterns very soon appeared. During the latter part of the seventeenth century in Spain, the baroque style under the influence of the cult of churriguer- ismo expressed itself in involved and intricate pat- terns of intertwining leafage and scrollwork, offer- ing a redundancy and complication of ornament. Contours were altered by exuberant decoration, and the incrustation of enamels and coloured stones were not always in harmony with the general out- lines of the object. An example of the style of the period, previous to the appearance of the excesses by which it came later to be identified, is shown on the finely proportioned stem of the silver-gilt monstrance (R3032). Of baluster form, the dif- ferent members of the stem are engraved with shell scrolls, oval cartouches, foliage and diaper pat- terns; applied cherub heads are repeated on the central knob, on the base, and also on the mounts MONSTRANCE of the circular compartment which frames the glass Seventeenth century of the monstrance. Another work of this century is a silver statue of a bishop (R3047) which has the cope richly engraved with a foliage and floral design of carnations, thistles, and pomegranates in simu- 204 GOLD AND SILVERWORK lation of the textile motives and designs which ushered in the baroque period. Candelabra and sanctuary lamps, fashioned in gold and silver, have been in use since the early days of the Christian church. Like many other pieces of church plate they have oftentimes been plundered for the value of the metal they contained. A testimonial of such a measure, enacted by the Crown, is inscribed on a silver I retablo in the Cathedral at Huesca; the legend relates that the work was given by Peter the Fourth silver lamps which had previously been taken to enrich the treasury while carrying on war with Castilla. The example of a sanctuary lamp (R3000) dates from the end of the seventeenth century. Of conical form terminating in a finial, it has three suspension chains connecting with the small canopy; the surface is embossed with radiating and foliage enclosing ellipses. An inscription on the band under the rim reads: esta lampara es.nves. r3047 STATUE OF A BISHOP D. LA SOLEDAD.Y SE HICO SIENDO MAJOR DOMO. BENITO. Seventeenth century FERNANDEZ. ANO.D. 1670. A lamp similar in form to this one, a work of the early part of the century, is in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston. Secular plate of the seventeenth century com- prised great numbers of embossed trays, lamps, basins, and braziers. In contributing further to the demands for luxury the plateros wrought from the vast supply of silver bullion, arriving in Spain from the mines of Potosí in South America, many pieces of silver furniture, as mirrors, chairs, and tables, a vogue which was to be carried into France and other countries of Europe upon the marriage of the Infanta Anne of Austria with Louis the Thirteenth. Specimens of silver made in the American col- onies, especially Mexico, which were characterized by a decoration based on the flora of the country, were reaching Spain by the seventeenth century. To this group of objects belongs the elaborately ornamented crown at Toledo of the Virgin de los " Desamparados, a work of an eighteenth-century lamp Mexican goldsmith. Conspicuous among South American silverware from the eighteenth through the nineteenth century are the cups for drinking yerba mate. A simple gourd with a portion of the stalk 205 HISPANIC SOCIETY left as a handle originally served as a container for this beverage or infusion which was sipped through a perforated tube or spoon known as a bombilla fashioned of reed, bone, or metal. Gourds were many times carved and decorated with finely worked silver mounts. Whether in wood or entirely of metal these cups retained the gourdlike form as shown on the well-wrought example (R3024). A floral decoration in repoussé ornaments the bowl which is supported by a tripod stand hav- ing each foot designed in imitation of a gourd stalk. These little cups, which were also mounted on silver trays and decorated with birds and filigree flowers resting on slender springs, are interesting representations of South American metal work. The incense burner (R3008), originating in Argentina, has the form adopted in that region for many of the sahumadores or burners for incense and perfume. In the likeness of a turkey, the applied wings and fantail are of gilt and show feathers indicated by graven lines, while the plumage on the silver body MATE CUP is in relief and chased; the pierced head, which is Eighteenth century hinged, serves as a cover. Of artistic merit, this ves- sel displays Colonial craftsmanship of the seventeenth century. In Spain before the close of the century, Madrid had drawn silversmiths from all parts of the Peninsula, and their number, following the accession of Philip the Fifth in 1700, was augmented by the arrival of craftsmen from France. French taste in the spirit of the rococo style which came into favour with the Bourbon dynasty influenced almost entirely the work of the silver- smiths during the first part of the eighteenth century. Prominent in this form of decoration, a late develop- ment of French baroque, were scrolls in many irreg- ular shapes sometimes enclosing diapered and reticu- lated work, conch and scallop shells. A monu- mental work portraying with definite skill the deco- rative motives of the eighteenth century, and one of the most interesting and ambitious in Catalan silversmithing of the period, is the reliquary urn of Saint Ermengol in the Cathedral of Urgel. A re- R3008 INCENSE BURNER cumbent figure of the Saint in the robes of a bishop Seventeenth century with mitre, pastoral staff, and pectoral cross rests on the cover of the casket-shaped urn which is embellished with scenes in relief from the life of the Saint. This reliquary, made to replace an earlier one of 206 GOLD AND SILVERWORK wood, was completed at Barcelona by the silversmith, Pere Lleopart, in 1775. The abandoning of the rococo style for classical forms was apparent shortly after the mid-century. The cabinetmakers carved shallow flutes on the legs of chairs and tables similar to those on classical columns, and silversmiths adapted flutings, both vertical and spiral, in the decoration of such pieces as cups, bowls, ewers, tankards, tureens, and sauce boats. The silver salver (R3042) has a series of concave and convex flutings spring- ing from the boss at the centre which is decorated with a pear-shaped cartouche sur- — — mounted by a shell and sur- rounded with salver foliage, cornu- Eighteenth century copias, and smaller shells against a ribbed back- ground. A series of swirling spiral flutes orna- ment the oviform body of the ewer (R3086) which is further decorated with cartouches of acanthus leaves and scrolls. Curving and recurv- ing scrolls form the graceful handle, and the cartouche embossed under the lip has on one side the letter L crowned, the mark of the city of Lisbon, and on the other the device of the sil- versmith ae(?). The ewer displays the brilliance and whiteness that characterized Portuguese EWER Eighteenth century silver, resulting from the high quality and purity of the metal. Dating from the expansion of the Kingdom of Portugal in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, many master- pieces in silver proclaimed the dexter- ous work of its metal craftsmen. Among these illustrious names is that of Gil Vicente, silversmith and poet, and author of the beautiful custodia in Belem Cathedral. Other examples of Portuguese work in the Hispanic Museum fashioned in the latter part of the eighteenth century are the ewer (R3084) and its companion dish EWER AND DISH (R3085). Each object is marked with Eighteenth century the stamp of Porto, used between 1792 and 1810, the letter P within a rectangle surmounted by pellets, the monogram 207 HISPANIC SOCIETY of the smith med the assayers' official discharge marks, and the burilado. The , ewer and dish portray the beauty of form and smooth surfaces of the last part of the century when classical shapes and ornamentation, inspired by excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum, were the mode. The scroll and shell motives were discarded and decoration was restricted mainly to mouldings with accents of symmetrical floral forms. During the second half of the eighteenth century there was a revival of inter- est in the native industrial arts of Spain due to the efforts and patronage of the King, Charles the Third, who established schools for the teaching of apprentices and such manufacturies as those for porcelain at Buen Retiro, leathers at Sevilla, crystal glass and mirrors at La Granja, and the renowned house of the silver- smith Martinez that was to become later La Real Fabrica de Platería. Charles the Third, recognizing the excellence of the work of Antonio Martinez y Barrio, a native of Huesca and a silversmith who had gained prestige at Zaragoza, named him director of a school for the purpose of teaching all the branches of silversmithing. Previous to this appointment Martinez had gone to Paris and London under the patronage of the crown to obtain information concerning new methods and mechanical improvements in working with metal. The technical refinement and good taste displayed in all objects made in the atelier of Martinez were reflected in the silversmiths' craft throughout Spain. He followed yet individualized classical styles in such a manner that his work surpassed the productions of other contemporary metal craftsmen. Martinez de- signed a special machine for the making of decoration in the semblance of pearls and half pearls that appeared on many of his objects, an ornamentation also shown on the Portuguese ewer and dish. A peculiarity of his work was the bril- liance of the gilded pieces which has resisted the action of time. The mechanical processes then in use had al- ready produced a certain hardness in the appearance of the work although cast enrichments were gone over carefully with the graver, and chasing and repousse decoration on many pieces of applied ornamentation were the labour of expert craftsmen. A number of pupils of Martinez, Nicolas Roche, Juan Nivel, and Domingo Conde, opened independent workshops at Madrid and neighbouring centres. Among their productions and those of contemporary silver- smiths must have appeared many little objects, such as buckles, decorative buttons, badges, chains, collars, pomanders, and snuff boxes that fashion dictated during the latter part of the century when the love of luxury pervaded all ranks and professions of society. SNUFFER AND HOLDER One of a pair The fashionable petimetre of Madrid was accustomed 1854 to carry on his person two watches, the same number of snuff boxes, to wear on his hand a large ornamental ring, and around his 208 GOLD AND SILVERWORK neck numerous pendants. There have survived gilded bronze watches known as Imperio that had their origin in the Martinez/áír/ca. After the death of Martinez in 1798 the workshop continued to issue produc- tions of superior quality until the middle of the nineteenth century. The Hispanic Society possesses a pair of snuffers (R3066, R3067) in holders formed as candlesticks. Each object is engraved with the Martinez device of the Real Platería, the letter M surmounted by Z, between the official stamps of the villa y corte, in each of which is placed the nu- R3006 BOOKBINDING merals 54 referring to the year 1854 when Nineteenth century the pieces were made. In these snuffers and other objects of this period there was a tendency away from the severe classicism of the Empire style, which although satisfactory when applied to furniture and ormolu decoration, was less successful when portrayed in silver. At the Madrid exhibition of secular plate in 1925 were assembled many pieces bearing the device of Martinez, such as candelabra, ewers, trays, candlesticks, and ink stands. The ornamental binding (R3006) serves as a cover to a letter of Ferdinand the Seventh dated at Madrid, October 16th, 1815, granting merced de grandeza de España to the Marquis of Benameji. Applied to both the front and reverse of the green velvet cover are the armorial bearings of the Marquis, clasps, and decorative mountings in silver gilt. Of the ordinances passed during the latter part of the eighteenth century was one referring to bookbinding. With a view to stimulating the domestic craft of the binder, it was forbidden, making an ex- ception of old books, to import bound books into the country. Among the fashions followed by the book collectors of the period was the custom of having the owner's escutcheon stamped on leather covers or applied in metal mountings as shown on the binding R3006. The Spanish dominion of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies is the provenance of a pair of gilt seal boxes (R3052, R3053) in the Society's collection. Work of the first part of the nineteenth century, they were apparently made as containers for official seals, as each box has its cover embossed with the royal escutcheon of Ferdinand the First, R3052 SEAL BOX the ruling sovereign of the Sicilies. One of a pair The decline of the minor arts in Spain, to Nineteenth century which the loss of the colonial possessions among other causes, was a contributing 209 HISPANIC SOCIETY factor, was apparent throughout the country in the diminishing power of the guilds. At Barcelona where the gremio de plateros had been a forceful organiza- tion in the industrial and social life of the city since the fourteenth century, the last silversmith to present himself before the tribunal for examination was José Tusceres y Viles in 1834. All regulations governing the crafts were removed with the suppression of the guilds in 1836, and the machine, overshadowing the creative work of the artist-craftsmen, triumphed in quantity and stereotyped production. Craftsmen of the present day have attempted to regain the inspiration of earlier centuries when workers in metal referred to themselves as sculptors and architects in gold and silver. At Barcelona, the silversmith, Ramón Sunyer y Ciará, has been selected by the Amies de l'Ari Litúrgic to fashion crosses, chalices, and other important objects for the churches of Cataluña. Many pieces of jewelry and plate, outstanding for the originality of Sunyer's designs and execution, have found a place in the museums of Spain and countries abroad. The Hernández brothers at Valladolid have practiced with admirable results the many processes known to silversmithing. Madrid, through the enterprise of Don Félix Grande y Buylla, is again the centre of metal-work production, of high quality, mainly ecclesiastical. From this atelier came the altar lamp of gilded bronze and copper embellished with enamel escutcheons that His Majesty Alfonso the Thirteenth presented to the Church of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza in New York. In the Grande studios have been wrought the custodia for the Cathedral of Burgos, the triptych for the Virgin of Covadonga, and other liturgical objects of great beauty which express with fresh interpretation in precious metal the rich symbolism of the church combined with the varied ornamental styles of decoration. A. M. J. É IRONWORK HE traditions of the Spanish smith may be traced to the time when the warriors of the Peninsula first adopted an iron blade to vanquish their foes. At what moment Iberia, rich in iron ore, relinquished her bronze weapons and turned to those of iron and steel is not definitely known. With the advent of the Celts, well versed in the technique of obtaining malleable metal from the ore, about the sixth century before our era, and the further exploitation of the VI Iberian mines by those Greek pioneers from Marseilles who settled along the eastern coast, a strong impetus was given to the use of iron for weapons as well as for domestic and field implements, horse-trappings, and personal ornaments. In this age the utility of the iron object was its chief requisite. Artistic merit did not become of importance for many centuries. Among the principal weapons of Spain and Portugal found in the graves of their warriors are the sword, the dagger, the sabre or espada falcaia, the javelin, the spear, the lance, the soliferreum, and small, curved knives. Many antennae swords resembling the Central European type have been excavated in the cemetery at Aguilar de Anguita (Guadalajara), a necropolis dating from not long after the first invasion of the Celts. The weapon, frequently engraved and in its final development encrusted with silver or copper inlay, receives its name from the antenna-like projections of the pommel. These swords, intro- duced by the Celts, have appeared in large numbers in the provinces of Zaragoza, Guadalajara, and Soria. With the acceptance of the long, straight sword of the type found at La Tène, Switzerland, and brought to Spain by the invading Gauls, that with antennae lost favour and gradually disappeared. At this time certain daggers considered of Spanish conception and charac- teristic of pre-Roman strongholds in the provinces of Soria, Palència, Burgos, and Avila came into use. To date, a possible intermediate type which would connect them with the antennae sword has not been determined. These arms which have been well studied at Monte Bernorio (Palència), Miraveche (Burgos), and Las Cogotas (Avila) appeared possibly at the end of the fourth century, but more probably in the third century b.c . Early examples have a pommel and guard each formed by a keel-shaped piece placed in opposite directions, a grip formed of one or three cylindrical, bone-covered pieces, a four-faced blade throttled in the lower third, and a sheath bearing cone-topped screws and terminating in a four-sided plaque with a disk at each corner. The sheath was worn horizontally, forming the front of a belt to which it was attached by means of the screws, one or two transverse metal bands, and a hook fixed in the back. Many of the known examples were handsomely decorated with engraving or inlay in geometric designs. The dagger and sheath underwent numerous modifications; a triangular variant found by a potter of Palència and formerly in the Vives Collection is now on exhibition at the Society (R4478). The bronze sheath is engraved with 213 HISPANIC SOCIETY bands of fine lines which cross in X-shape, within a square, at each corner of which are the button-like screws which, with the bronze band across the back, together served to attach the sheath to the warrior's belt. The sheath, from which protrudes the bronze guard of the dagger, encloses part of the four-faced iron blade with a midrib and terminates in a thin, circular chape. Despite the unfortunate absence of the hilt it seems prob- able from the modifications imposed upon the blade and sheath that the dagger represents a late stage in the de- velopment of the Monte Bernorio dagger. Preceding the ultimate type in the sequence, known as the double globular dagger, was one distinguished by a semicircular pommel and a circular grip knob, and a triangular or throttled blade. The double globu- lar dagger was characterized by a hilt with a circular pommel and grip knob and a triangular blade with a midrib. A beautiful example (R158) with an iron hilt, formerly in the Goyena and Vives Collections, may be seen at the Hispanic Society. The geometric ornament consists of straight and arch-shaped lines upon the guard with a zigzag and Sagger and sheath border. The grip panels are Palència filled with fine crosses in parallel lines, and the faceted grip knob displays a design of concentric circles cut by double lines radiating from the boss. In use throughout Spain and Portugal, many of these daggers were found in the ruins of Numancia (Soria) famous for its heroic resist- ance to Scipio. Although the espada jaleóla has been found in north- central and northeastern Spain and was in common use, it was encountered most frequently in the southern and southeastern regions of the Peninsula. The cemeteries at Almedinilla (Córdoba) and Villaricos (Almería) were particularly rich in these sabres. Their prototype was Etruscan or Creek. The hilt of the Creek machaira was curved to form the head of a bird and its single-edged blade was used to deliver a slashing blow from the shoulder. Spanish smiths accepted the pattern and also created a variant by terminating the blade in a point and double continuing its cutting edge along the back for about a globular dagger third of the length. There appear to be two types of hilt, one reminiscent of the bird's head, the other suggesting an equine head which may have been inspired 214 IRONWORK by the bronze buckles representing horsemen, found in central Spain. From the fragments of Greek pottery buried within the graves, and from the representa- tions of the sabre upon coins, as well as from historical evidence, it is supposed that the espada falcata was used from the fifth century into the first century B .c. The espada falcata was forged in one piece of iron or steel with the tang brought around to form the pommel. The testing of a falcata by the Royal School of Mines has shown that a mild steel was made from Spanish ore which contained manganese in its natural state. Added toughness was given to the metal by casehardening; when repeatedly heated in burning charcoal, wrought iron becomes externally carbu- rized. The- outer part of the sabre tested contained carbon to the depth of an eighth of an inch. An espada falcata presented to the Society by the archaeol- ogist, Horace Sandars, was obtained from Pascual Serrano who conducted excavations at the Cerro del Amarejo, near Bonete (Albacete). At this necropolis Pierre Paris gathered some fragments of the red-figured vases of fourth-century Greece. Upon the hilt, suggestive of a horse's head, may be seen the shoulder plates and traces of the decorative patterns orig- inally engraved or possibly inlaid with metal. Also on exhibi- tion are sketches (A547-A548) by J. Vargas of two handsome sabres inlaid with silver at the Museo Arqueológico, Madrid. In these examples the opening of the hilt was closed by a chain or bar. The scabbard was usually of wood with an iron rim and transverse bands of metal which held it together and supported the rings by which it was attached to a belt. The upper band had a projection on one side which held a small knife in place. Traces of the metal parts of the scabbard may be seen on the Society's example, and lying across the sabre blade appears to be the tubular handle of the small knife. No better comment on the efficiency of this blade can be made than that of the soldier, who, according to Seneca, said, "It is only natural, Caesar, that you do not know me; for when this occurred, I was a sound man; but afterwards in the action at Munda my eye was struck out, and I was trepanned. Nor will you know the helmet if ESPADA you FALCATA see it, for it was split by Spanish machaira". Cerro del Amarejo a Albacete The swordsmith grew in dexterity, and his cunning was highly praised by Roman and Arabian historians. Although few proofs of his skill remain from the years when the Visigothic and Muhammadan invaders were overrunning the Peninsula, the blades tempered by Moslem armourers were frequently described as unexcelled by those from famed Damascus. The engraved swords and daggers reputed to have belonged to Boabdil were en- crusted with precious metals, jewels, and enamels, and might well have gained their maker great renown. Ore from Mondragón was highly esteemed, and the R161 215 HISPANIC SOCIETY blades of Toledo when cherry red were dipped in the water of the Tajo. The armourers chose a night when clouds obscured the stars and a warm wind from the south was blowing. Under these conditions the colour might be seen clearly and the blade in passing from the fire to the water was not chilled. The temper- ing was timed by a chanted invocation to Christ, the Virgin, and Saint John which varied in only a few words from an old tune sung when mariners set sail. The earliest weapon forms persisting through the centuries were modified by the tastes of Romans, Visigoths, and Muhammadans, reaching an apogee in the masterpieces of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Iron as a decorative material was little favoured by the artisans on the Peninsula until the twelfth century. Although the trident hinges of a door from Medina Elvira, now at the Museo Arqueológico, Granada, have been given to the tenth or eleventh century, the excavations of the palaces of the Arabian kings show that they made little use of iron except for their arms and domestic utensils. The malleability and elegant appearance of bronze and silver ren- dered these materials more acceptable to the artist. Idrisi, the twelfth-century geographer, remarks in his description of Spain that, during the reign of the Almorávides, Almería had attained great renown for its industries, including the manufacture of iron utensils, but that in his time the inhabitants had been reduced to slavery by the Christians and nothing remained of its former glory. Knockers, which were to become so prominent in Spanish decoration, have their antecedents in those of bronze which adorned the Mussulman palaces. An unnamed poet, praising the glories of Medina Azzahira to Almanzor, writes, "Lions of metal grasp the knockers of its portals, and when these ring it seems as if their mouths repeated the words, Allah akhar". Their form and ornament indicating a common origin, old Moroccan doors still bear trident hinges, rings, and knockers similar to those in Spain. While Catalan documents dated 1015 and 1030 record the names of Guifredo "fabre ferranus" and Bonucio "malleator", it was not until the erection early in the following century of many Christian churches with window and altar grilles that the smith came into his own. The pilgrimage roads to Santiago de Compostela, Rome, and Jerusalem are lined with architectural and sculp- tural monuments which bear witness to the tremendous influence the pilgrim- ages had upon the growth of Romanesque art. In the ironwork field, no less, the pilgrimages explain the appearance within a short period of time of similar scroll-filled panels in ELngland and France—^notably at Winchester and at Le Puy-en-Velay, in Spain, and even at Jerusalem. Long content with its strength, the smith awoke to the decorative possibilities of iron with the creation of low grilles characterized by the employ of elongated C-scrolls, confronted or addorsed, and strapped together in a simple, repeated motive forming a com- pact and opaque pattern. At the churches of San Cehriân and Santiago del Burgo, Zamora, and of San Isidoro, León, may be seen the prototypes of the four panels at the Church of Santa Maria del Mercado, León, of the verja and reja at the Church of San Vicente, Avila, and of the rejas which screen the Capilla del 216 IRONWORK Sagrario at Palència Cathedral and the Capilla de Sania Cruz at Pamplona Cathedral. Church doors in Spain were frequently covered by patterns of C-scrolls similar to those of the rejas. Less common were iron palmette designs and tri- dents horizontally addorsed. A wide, tendril-pointed trident forming each of the strap hinges or wide hinges from which curled trefoil fronds was also used on wooden doors. Illustrated in the thirteenth century Beaius super apocalypsim of the Morgan Collection (number 429) are doors bearing elongated C-scrolls, horizontally placed, and ring handles, the upper two of which were intended for the use of horsemen. These heavy rings which served both as door pulls and knockers are still in use, varying little or not at all from the earliest examples. A number are in the collection of the Society, some with a punched pattern and others incised with zigzags or scallops of Moslem design. The Romanesque style of ironwork also found expression in candelabra and braziers. A rectangular brazier, set on wheels, with its sides formed by bands of C-scrolls is at the Cau Ferrai, Sitges, and another is illustrated in the Alba Bible. Interesting reliefs of a smith at work appear on the Romanesque façades of Sania Maria la Real at Sangüesa, Navarra, and of San Cebriân at Zamora. By the thirteenth century the ironsmiths had reached a position of unques- tionable importance, for in 1200 an organization of ferrers was cited by Peter the Second of Aragón, and in 1257 four smiths figured in the Barcelona city council. The growing influence of the ironworkers received royal support when Peter the Cruel approved the ordinances presented to him in 1380 by the master ferrers of Barcelona for a brotherhood under the protection of Saint Eloy. The rise of their guilds followed a similar development in other regions, being most successful in the northern provinces, Valencia, and at Sevilla. At first membership was discretionary and the religious and social aspects of the brotherhood dominated, but in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, flourish- ing under royal approbation, the guilds assured ironwork of excellent quality by means of required apprenticeships, examinations, and strict regulations. Few smiths signed their work until the sixteenth century, their masterpieces too often remaining anonymous. Of late years Spanish archives have yielded many names of smiths, both Christian and Arabian, as well as contracts giving a detailed account of their work. The Spaniard did not forsake the C-scroll, so well adapted to his stubborn material and to his tools, until the fourteenth century when the Gothic fondness for floral forms led him to create tall rejas and candelabra inspired by the slender stalk, spiky leaves, and curving petals of the lily. To appreciate the work of the smith due cognizance must be taken of the fact that his first, and indeed main, tools were forge and bellows, anvil and hammer, tongs, chisels, and gravers. In later years his implements became more refined, but much of the value of early work is due to the smith's ingenuity in using the materials and tools at hand. Dependent upon his own efliorts to shape the iron from the time he received the rough bar from the mines, he produced original work, 217 I HISPANIC SOCIETY charming in its very irregularity. The freedom and vigour of iron hammered out with swift, strong blows retains its exponents in Cataluña to-day. The opposing style, for which Castilla was famous, was covered with rich ornament obtained by tedious cutting and filing. The craft of the blacksmith may be roughly differentiated from that of the locksmith in that the former re- lied mainly upon his hammer and the softening effect of the fire's heat, while the latter shaped the reluctant metal when it was cold. The impress of Muhammadanism was a con- stant factor in Spanish ironwork; many doors bore trident hinges of Eastern form and geometric deco- ration or rows of nailheads in the favourite half- NAILHEAD lemon form. To the East- Late 15th-early 16th century ern abhorrence of an empty space may be traced the symmetrical plac- ing of nailheads upon a door. A long-lived fashion combining decoration with strength, the use of square, pyramidal, half-spherical, or conical nail- heads has the same root as the popular decoration of "puntas de diamante" placed on the Palace of the Infantado, Guadalajara, built at the end of the fif- teenth century, or of shells as on the façade of the Casa de las Conchas, Salamanca. Nails from Alhambra NAILHEAD Late 15th-early 16th century doors (R13-R14) and others showing Muhammadan influence may be seen at the Hispanic Society. The decora- tion borne by early square nails consists of a band of in- cised lines, and in half-spherical and pyramidal examples of radiating lines or ridges (as on R38, R46). In addition to these simple forms, a half-orange type bearing radiating incised lines or ridges, in the interstices of which were knobs, became popular during the reign of the Catholic Kings. The same type was also combined with a square backplate trimmed and studded with knobs at the corners. The nailheads were attached to the door either by a fixed nail or a separate nail which pierced the centre of the half sphere, its head form- ing a boss. The long, thin keys used by the Muhammadans were soon adopted by Spanish Christians. A fourteenth-century ex- ample (R250) with an open ovoid bow, a round stem, and two thin, angular wards is in the collection, and a Catalan Panel R41 ARAGONESE KEY (A 1792) depicts Saint Peter holding a key of Moslem design. Fifteenth century Two famous examples are conserved at Sevilla Cathedral, that in iron supposedly presented to King Ferdinand the Third and that in 218 IRONWORK silver to Alfonso the Tenth or Peter the Cruel. A similar key (R41) was found in Aragón where Muhammadan artisans were held in high regard. Once gilded, the circular bow bears the same incised decora- tion of an eight-pointed star formed by inter- lacing squares as the silver key at Sevilla. The wards of the bit are formed by Gothic letters which read dios fuerte i dios santo , a ten- letter inscription similar to that of the silver key. The squared mouldings of the long, round stem are incised dios, and f c f c, possibly intended as the initials of Ferdinand and Caspe. It is tempting to suppose that this key, found at Caspe, was made in honour of Ferdinand of Antequera, elected King of Aragón by the fa- mous parliament in 1412. Such keys as these were door ring used as a part of the ceremony at the surrender Late fifteenth-early sixteenth century of a town or castle and were also given as a token of honour and loyalty to a visiting ruler. The door rings and knockers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries based on their first form—the ring—illustrate the constant repetition of Muhammadan elements. The heavy ring with curving or polygonal surface was symmetrically punched and incised with zigzags, scallops, circles, undulations, and checkered designs, according to the maker's fancy. The backplate chosen might be either a flat disk with serrated edges, or one with a central half sphere as well (as on R91 ), or a plate pierced with an open design and encircled by a roped border. Sometimes an undecorated, bossed-out nail- head satisfied the patron, but the smith was well able to border it with arched and foliated tracery (as on R89) or with interlacery (as on R91). A nailhead, bossed out to form a half sphere, is the backplate of the latter knocker of Muhammadan inspiration. Pierced with crosses, it is bordered by an incised pattern of diagonals and verticals, a raised rim, and en- circled finally by a thin band cut in an inter- lacing triangular pattern. The ring and clinch are deeply cut with a spur design, and the striker plate is pierced with cruciform decora- tion and edged by notches which repeat the pointed outline of the interlacery. Scalloped, r91 knocker bossed-out nailheads with lobes separated by a Late fifteenth-early sixteenth century narrow repousse ray and pierced, serrated disks resembling a many-spoked wheel were also popular backplates. A pair of early sixteenth-century incised rings (R72, R83) with backplates of leaf tracery in a 219 HISPANIC SOCIETY swirled, repousse design illustrate the interworkings of Muhammadan and late Gothic ornament. In common with other creiftsmen the smith owes much to ecclesiastical patronage. Not only were the rejas developed primarily as protection for the treasures of the church and the candelabra for its illumination, but to the religious fervour of the time was due the crea- tion of boundary and processional crosses bearing a crudely ham- mered figure of the Christ. These crosses, which appeared in the thirteenth century, be- DOOR RING came Late increasingly elab- fifteenth-early sixteenth century orate, resulting in the fifteenth century in a type more striking for the variety of the figures and attributes represented than for beauty of design. The early struggles of the smith to master the human form were not con- fined to crosses but included knockers; an inter- esting example at the Society appears to date from the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century. The position and modeling of the naïve forms upon the knockers resemble those of the cross figures which were their prototypes. Beneath the crude canopy of one (R48) is the short-legged, aproned KNOCKER figure of an artisan, form- Late 14th-early 15th century ing the hammer; its simple backplate is held to the door by baluster fixing staples. Another early knocker (R47) has a rectangular backplate surmounted by a flat crown of floral tracery and a hammer upon which lies a many-scaled lizard with a tightly curled tail. Equally interesting are two hammers without strikers or backplates; one (R54) represents a tall Basque wear- ing a hoina, and the other (R53) a long-maned dog crouching with teeth bared, his forepaws on a cushion. Also in the collection are examples (R52, R55) somewhat later in date, admirably conceived and exe- KNOCKER cuted, and displaying a skilled technique. An unusual Fifteenth century representation of a dragon, his feathered wings folded to form a shield upon his back, rests upon the heavy, scroll-tipped hammer 220 IRONWORK i--Vy.íí.N; ;/ / V\V*-'.v/»Í. v»- '>v /• N\V-- ^ :V;' í'·*-* :V "^:V' ':V ^ * I#•*/íí'.v't >/'* •-f • ! Jf·' *'it. *< ík* -íí % > ^ \ ^ *-*Í *■* 4 ^ 'v i.' "l. »<'•** FRAGMENT FROM A REJA BAND Fifteenth century of a fifteenth-century knocker (R52). The second knocker, once painted black, combines Christian and Muhammadan elements. The backplate, terminated by a stylized form reminiscent of the fleur-de-lis, is pierced with quatrefoils and decorated with an incised undulating line and dot design. A slender dove with wings outstretched and head bowed serves as the hammer. In both knockers the smith has united with great success fantasy and a strong feeling for the texture of iron. Most imposing of the legacy of beautiful ironwork left by the master smiths of Spain are the many rejas to be found in the cathedrals and churches of her cities and little towns. When the low, Romanesque screens were discarded in favour of a taller, more transparent safeguard which offered no foothold to a sacrilegious invader, the smith concentrated his attention upon the cresting and gate. A document records that in 1389 payment for a reja at Santa Maria de l'Aurora, Manresa, included the florescence of its portals, and Valencian con- tracts included stipulations such as those accepted by Ramón Vidal in 1412 for the reja of the Chapel of San Bias. The agreement reads "with tinned yZeurs- de-lis, and the bars varnished black in the manner and form of the reja of the Chapel of Santa Margarita". The contract for the latter screen, evidently one of recognized merit, was carried out in 1400 by Aloy de Manso. To this style belong the chapel rejas which stand in the cloisters of Barcelona and Segorbe cathedrals, their slender bars surmounted by fleurs-de-lis placed stiffly erect. Traceried bands and the ogival ornament of the pinnacled gate relieve the sever- ity of the uprights. The smith, tiring of simplicity, soon turned his hand to the cutting of elaborate bands of tracery. Originally made of a single plate rendered very trans- parent by open units such as quatrefoils, greater elegance was gained by the use of two superimposed bands of metal. The superior plate, intricately cut in an open design, lay in relief upon the lower, more opaque band, which was cut in a cusped and complementary pattern. The exquisite technique required for such work may be examined in two handsome bands (R147, R149) of vesical and geometric tracery now in the collection of the Society. One or two like bands, bordered frequently by an openwork edging of fleurs-de-lis (such as the border R160, but usually of a more graceful, interlacing design), were applied horizontally to the reja. The screen of the Capilla Mayor in Tarragona Cathedral, erected by a smith from Morella, illustrates the delicate, lacelike effect to be obtained by skilled workmanship. Foliated prickets form the cresting, below which is a band of geometric tracery edged in part by a cusped 221 HISPANIC SOCIETY border. Above the central gate is a panel of tracery enclosed by an ogee curve. Geometric tracery remained popular during the fifteenth century and at its close was combined with leaf ornament as in the reja of the Chapel of Sania Ana in Burgos Cathedral. Beneath traceried arches of leaves and natu- ralistic vine sprays, the screen bears the arms of Luis de Acuña y Osorio, bishop of Burgos. The smiths, like the sculptors, did not change suddenly from their old ways to adopt the manners ofRth1e60Renaissance but lingered in well-trodden paths for a time. At the turn of the century the rejas bore two narrow bands, oneFbReloAwGMENT FROM A REJA BORDER the cresting and one separating the reja into two sections of twisted bars which frequently opened into quatrefoils and leaflike silhouettes. The bands of Fifteenth-early sixteenth were century leaf tracery, incised to show the veining and slightly beaten out to give a re- poussé effect. They were also characteristic of the cresting, interlacing in ogival designs above a coat of arms or above decorative figures interspersed with foliage and candelabra. There are three fragments of oak-leaf tracery in the Society's collection, two sections of which (R153) are identical in pattern to that below the interlacing floral cresting of the choir reja at Zamora Cathedral. This screen bears the arms of Diego Melendez Valdes, archbishop of Zamora from 1496 to 1506. Similar in style to the work of Juan Francés, it has been attributed to Diego Hanequin who was living at Zamora about 1512. Small shields were placed at intervals on the Zamora band, intended to ornament as well as conceal the joinings of the band which was made in short lengths. These plates often displayed a bearing from the donor's coat of arms, or the castles and lions of the kingdoms. A plaque (R105), on which is worked in repousse an armed knight riding out from a battlemented gate, may be seen at the Hispanic Society. Also in the collection are gilded pinnacles and arching fragments adorned with leaf tracery from a reja of this period. Double-plate tracery was used to enhance knockers, hinges, door rings, and locks as well as rejas during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Gothic FRAGMENT FROM A REJA BAND Late fifteenth-early sixteenth century chests made of iron plates or filigree or of wood covered with velvet or leather, banded and reënforced with ironwork, bore varied locks. They were usually 222 IRONWORK square and often turreted with the shells of Santiago terminating the hasp and the corners of the backplate (as in chest S58). Many were leaf bordered, or paneled with double tracery which revealed velvet of brilliant hue. These lock plates were flat, their mechanism mortised into the chest front, but turreted ex- amples used a raised lock box. An early lock (R112), its crude tracery backed by red velvet, is further ornamented by a wild man upon the hasp, a saint carrying a staff beneath a pin- nacled canopy, and at the corners four bearded heads. In addition to the guard held by the saint and the wild man against evil spirits, the keyhole was originally covered by a neatly RiI2 CHEST fitted LOCK hingedplate. Fifteenth century Locks with some secret device to confuse a thief were frequently chosen by the ap- prentice to prove his skill to the guild examiners ; he might spend months upon its construction and decoration. A slide plate displaying an exquisitely chiseled vine upon its panels conceals the key- hole of another lock (R118) of the period, bor- dered by gilded vine tracery on three sides. A stemlike protrusion among the leaves of another lock (R107), edged with foliage in silhouette, when , pressed, re- R118 CHEST LOCK leases the false hasp Fifteenth century bearing a lizard which lifts to disclose the keyhole. To this group also belongs a square lock (R121) bordered by graceful leaf sprays on which traces of black paint and gilding remain. Double tracery in harmony with the estilo Isabel is displayed in a knocker (Rill) once gilded and backed with velvet. The latter enrichments could hardly have been necessary, so distinguished are the design and craftsmanship of the piece. Pin- nacled uprights separate the traceried panels of the CHEST LOCK backplate, and an admirably chiseled dragon Late 15th-early 16th century rests with folded wings upon the hammer. The^eurs- de-lis which crown the backplate are the florid development of the flat crown of earlier, less sophisticated knockers, and the Moslem punched and incised decoration gives added richness to its polished 223 T HISPANIC SOCIETY KNOCKER Late fifteenth-early sixteenth century 224 ■ IRONWORK surface. A winged hammer of floral tracery hanging from a pinnacle of the buttressed and traceried backplate of a small knocker (R106) is a fragile mani- festation of the same spirit. Ogival double tracery, which was often gilded and placed upon a red background to bring out the pattern, fills the backplates of two massive rings akin to those placed on the main doors of the parish church of San Martin, Valencia, in 1495, and to the hinges and knockers placed on the main portals of Tarragona Cathedral in 1510. In the first (R95) the rim of the circular backplate is incised with a zigzag pattern, and the heavy ring and clinch are also incised and punched with Muhammadan ornament. The influence of the R96 sumptuous German style is evident in the second KNOCKER knocker Late (R96). The twisted I5th-early 16th century ring, originally gilded, terminates in a shell at each side of the dragon head which holds the ring and eight-pointed plate to the door. Each star point and each ray is surmounted by a swirled cone at its meeting with the heavy border; the design suggests that its inspiration may have been the star-shaped vault of the Constable's Chapel at Burgos Cathedral built by the Colonia family. Many of the knockers in the collection illustrate the development of the half crown of foliated trac- ery cherished by Spanish smiths. The canopied backplate of one (R50) pierced with slender, win- dowlike openings and quatrefoils is reënforced by twisted colonnettes based on square nailheads and surmounted by diminutive pinnacles. Upon the hammer, standing with arm raised as if to stay an unwelcome guest, is a bearded wild man. Savage figures were sometimes placed at cathedral and house portals; they are sculptured upon the stone façade of the Colegio de San Gregorio, Valladolid. They also guard the hasps of chest locks from the curious (as on R112). Coats of arms supported by wild men appear from the fourteenth century, and it is prob- able that the custom was carried over from the tour- naments of the Middle Ages when it was usual for each knight to dress the servants guarding or carry- Rso ing his shield at the contest as KNOCKER savages, real or chimeric Late 16th animals, Moors. 15th-early century or An additional Muhammadan element of Spanish decoration was its ethnog- raphy. Negro heads appear on the cornice of San Juan de los Caballeros at 225 HISPANIC SOCIETY Segovia; possibly they inspired the head surmounting the curved hammer of a knocker formerly in a collection of ironwork from Valladolid and Segovia. Nubians were often seen in Spain during the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries and a negro, Juan de Valladolid, was appointed an administrator at Sevilla by the Catholic Kings. The backplate of the knocker (R110) is of fenestrate tracery crowned by interlacing fleurs-de-lis identical in pattern, except for the lower border, to the pierced decoration of two lanterns from Zamora Cathedral in the Fabriciano Collection. Trac- ery panels of similar design enrich two ceremonial maces from Segovia, formerly in the collection of the Count of Valencia de Don Juan. A favourite knocker dur- ing the last years of the reign KNOCKER Late I5th-early 16th century of the Catholic Kings had as its backplate one or two square nailheads of open-leeif tracery, slightly beaten out to give an effect of light and shade. Innumerable va- rieties of nailheads with separate nails (R3, R6, R19) were developed for Spanish doors during the sue- ceeding years. A number of knockers in the collection il- lústrate the varied types of hammers which were combined with leaf nailheads. Among the hammers used were an incised ring, a bar split like those of the rejas into a leaflike silhouette (as on R70), or a bar of stirrup form, the base twisted into a double volute surmounted by a shell resem- bling scissor handles. Often NAILHEADS Sixteenth century the hammer was a flattened ring, elliptical in shape with a crude fleuron at the R70 KNOCKER lower centre (as on R73). At each side of the dragon- Late I5th-early 16th century head clinch, which in this type commonly held the punched and incised ring to the door, were shells. Although knockers of this style are not unusual in Spain, many still remaining on Toledan doors, the pair in the collection of the Hispanic Society are noteworthy for the vigorous modeling of the 226 IRONWORK yawning dragon heads. A dragon head was often chosen by Catalan smiths to sur- mount the clinch. A famous example, the inspiration of others, is that from the Casa del Arcediano, Bar- celona, now at the Museu del Cau Ferrat, Sitges. The fierce head is poised on an arched neck from which the tmanyring is suspended. The backplate is of double tracery. Besides R73 there is in the collection an earlier ring (R64) held by a dragon head crudely hammered. Slow to relinquish popular forms, the smith re- tained ogival ornament or combined it with that of the Renaissance well into the R73 bra changed from the straight shaft adorned with lilies to Late 15th-early loth century . . an intermediate style using a crown of fleur-de-lis tracery to which were attached candle sockets (as on R162-R163) in contrast to the earlier prickets. Mouldings were added to the bulbed spindle, but it was supported by three spreading feet as in Gothic examples. A knocker (R49) bears an im- pressionistic dragon with widespread wings beneath a foliated half crown, but the rectangular backplate is strengthened by two channeled pilasters which betray the first workings of the Renaissance. Another knocker (R51) purely ogival in con- ception admits its later date by uprights of transi- tional form and its coldly exact cutting. A Gothicism surviving in certain large knockers was the canopy formed by a half crown of candelabrum leaves in the transitional ® p^''' • 1 J 1 t 1 • I Early sixteenth period and later by pierced century and repousse floral tracery (as on R128). The back- plates, bordered by corresponding tracery, were held to the door by spindles and bore ring or lyre- shaped hammers. While the smith's taste followed the changes of architectural styles in many details, he never lost his fondness for chimeric figures and tracery (R56, knocker R122). In a knocker (R56) of the transitional period Sixteenth century jj. jg g^g loath he was to leave an old subject. A serpent with the claws of a crustacean in place of head and tail is 227 HISPANIC SOCIETY coiled in an S-curve upon a notched and tapering backplate based upon the silhouette of a fleur-de-lis and pierced with two quatre- m M M foils, A number of keys (R22, R24-R25) in the col- lection, of the type used during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with circular bows surmounted by a crown or ring and filled with copper-soldered rosette patterns are reminiscent of Gothic pierced work. Ironwork inspired by the classic details of con- temporary architecture was characteristic of the later years of the century. Round arched arcades surmounted by a pediment decorate a lock from the Escorial dated 1558, and tracery employing floral or architectural motives (as on R122) was admired. Repousse work which flour- ished upon the rejas of the Renaissance enriched as well the plates of knockers and locks and the pedestaled col- KNOCKER onnettes of candelabra and Early sixteenth century pulpits. Muhammadan deco- ration lingered, and a ring knocker (R99) with two serrated plates pierced in a many-spoked wheel design testifies to the continuance of a fashion which harmo- nized with the geometrical tendencies of the reign of Philip the Second. To the arrival of German artisans in Spain may be at- tributed the appearance of etched iron. At the end of the first third of the sixteenth Ri22 century, iron treasure chests KNOCKER Late I6th-early 17th century with a multiple bolt lock operated by a single key came into use. The true key- hole was invariably in the lid, sometimes hidden by a sliding plate, and a false keyhole and lockplate were placed at the centre front of the chest. The pieces of the complicated mechanism were frequently incised with simple linear patterns, but the characteristic or- nament consisted of a pierced plate, usually in three bands, which completely hid the springs and levers. The varied foliage and figures of the Renaissance appeared KNOCKER in Sixteenth silhouette, their outlines emphasized by engraving century or etching. Such a chest (R186), in which a pierced and engraved tulip design covers the burnished steel plate, is in the collection. 228 IRONWORK Beautiful as were the Gothic screens, the magnificence of the ironworker's art was best realized during the sixteenth century when Spanish smiths vied with each other in the creation of rejas so noble of plan and ornament that they have never been surpassed. Heralding the Renaissance, trac- ery patterns in crude repousse appear on the fifteenth-century reja for the Capilla del Crista in Valencia Cathedral and on a reja in the transept of Burgo de Osma Cathedral. The latter screen of twisted bars, surmounted by a floral cresting similar in style to that before the Zamora choir, is further adorned by bands patterned with dolphins, grotesque heads terminating in candelabra, and spindles. Identical in design to the Burgo de Osma bands, a pierced and repousse fragment TREASURE CHEST (R157) at the Sixteenth Society belongs to the transi- century tional period. This type of decoration, which retained a mediaeval spirit at variance with the new manner of working, prob- ably appeared first at Valencia which was in earlier contact with Italy than was Castilla. Although the smith took over for the reja bands the ornament a lo romano, appearing in the work of sculptors and silversmiths, he remained true to earlier ideals for a time with the retention of ogives for the cresting. Characteristic of Renaissance screens in Spain were the solid, repousse bands such as R148, hammered with leaf scrolls, candelabra, sea horses, dolphins, or cherubim. A famous example of the early style, in which Gothic and classic motives in- termingle, stands before the Capilla Mayor in the church of the Monastery of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. The reja, in which Gothic traits predom- inate, was finished by Fray Francisco de Salamanca and Fray Juan de Avila in 1514. Nine years later the superb choir screen by Fray Francisco in Sevilla Cathe- dral received its gilding. At the centre of the closely woven cresting is the Tree of Jesse from which curl leaf scrolls encircling the figures which depict the genealogy of Christ. Sancho Muñoz and his assistants finished the screen for the Epistle side of the Capilla Mayor in 1520, but the reja for the Gospel side, completed in 1523, was executed under the direction of Diego de Udobro aided by Juan de Cubillana and Master Bartolomé of Jaén. An admirable comple- ment to the earlier rejas, the screen before the high altar, awarded to Fray Francisco, was set in place in 1529. In the last-named reja, spindles have com- pletely supplanted the twisted bars of the Gothic style used before the choir. Master Bartolomé of Jaén was a rejero and also a sculptor. In 1513 the Count of Tendilla wrote to his son at court to tell the King that this pupil of Fray Francisco de Salamanca surpassed even his instructor. An unsuccessful 229 HISPANIC SOCIETY R145 FRAGMENT FROM A REJA BAND Sixteenth century competitor for the Sevilla reja before the high altar, his greatest achievement is the reja of the Royal Chapel at Granada which screens the tombs of the Catholic Kings. Similar in conception to the Sevilla rejas mentioned above and differing from his other rejas in plan, it has been suggested that the design was by an- other hand. Set in place about 1520, the cresting, within which are portrayed ten scenes from the Passion, rewards magnificently the tentative experiments with cross and knocker figures of the previous centuries. The influence of the sculptors at work on the retablo is apparent in his treatment of the figures which are somewhat more than half life size and beaten in the round. Above the central gate, displayed against an eagle and supported by the lions of the Catholic Kings, glitter the painted bearings of their escutcheon. The six pilasters of oak, sheathed with repousse iron, are the work of Juan de Cubillana, who with Juan Zagala signed the first contract for this reja, given by Antonio de Fonseca in 1518. For some reason the first contract was not carried out, and Bartolomé executed the reja, except for the portion ceded to Cubillana. As the century progressed the rejas conformed more and more to the new taste, a strong architectural feeling being apparent. It was inevitable that the work of the rejero should reflect the other arts, for he was frequently skilled in them. Cristóbal Andino of Burgos was sculptor, architect, and silversmith as well as one of the most distinguished makers of Spanish rejas. His varied attain- ments are immediately visible in the screen for the Constable's Chapel at Burgos which he completed in 1523. Crowning the reja is a pediment beneath which kneel two polychrome figures, lightly balanced, holding the escutcheon of the founder. Andino also executed admirable rejas for Palència Cathedral and the Monastery of San Francisco at Medina de Rioseco. Although he worked iron RI46 FRAGMENT FROM A REJA BAND Sixteenth century with the skill and ease usually seen in silver alone, he thought iron a "common thing" and recommended the use of bronze for rejas. In 1540, Andino, Domingo de Céspedes of Toledo, and Francisco de Villalpando 230 IRONWORK R169 REJA CRESTING BEARING THE ARMS OF THE PALÈNCIA BRANCH OF THE DELGADO FAMILY Late sixteenth century of Valladolid submitted examples of their work in competition for the rejas to be erected in the Toledo Cathedral. In 1548 the silvered choir screen by Master Domingo was complete as well as the plateresque reja for the Capilla Mayor executed with great distinction by Villalpando. An example (R156) of the plateresque work of the period is in the collection of the Society. The repousse band is worked in a design of cherubim, leaf scrolls, urns, and dolphins. To the second third of the century belongs a silhouetted band oí fleurs-de-lis from a reja (R145); the leaves and petals are modeled in low relief. With the addition of gilding or polychrome, an admirable effect was obtained with com- paratively little labour. After the reja had been set in place, it was customary to bring out the design by judicious use of polychrome and gold, silver, or tin plat- ing. Another band (R146), its motive formed from the bearings of a coat of arms, illustrates the popularity of heraldic ornament. A cresting (R169) in the collection of the Society resembles the reja before the Chapel of San Pedro y los Reyes in Palència Cathedral. Ordered by Don Gabriel de Salceda, archdeacon of Carrión, the latter screen was completed in 1557 by Francisco Martinez of Valladolid. He died in 1564, leaving unfinished a reja for the Monastery of the Santísima Trinidad, Valladolid, later given to Caspar Rodriguez who had appraised his work for the Archdeacon of Carrión. His choir screen for Falencia Cathedral, finished in 1571, reveals the influence of Martinez as well as Andino. It is not unlikely that some follower of Martinez, possibly Caspar Rodriguez who repeatedly said he was from Falencia, was the rejero of the cresting at the Hispanic Society. The arrangement of scrolls, emphasizing the repousse car- touches, one of which bears the arms of the Falencia branch of the Delgado family, is characteristic of the northern school which centred at Valladolid. Juan Delgado, secretary to Philip the Second and a member of his Council of War, created in 1577 an estate for his son Agustin. In that year he added to it the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Rosario in the Dominican Monastery of San Pablo at Falencia, stating that he and his successors were to be patrons of the 231 HISPANIC SOCIETY chapel. Juan Delgado died about 1586, and it seems possible that this cresting may have belonged to a reja which once stood before the chapel. Also at the Society are the reja posts (R165-R168) which supported the weight of the cresting. Each post was formed by a straight pedestal upon which was placed a spindle with an acanthus moulding and a capital of stiff, frilled leaves. The scroll-filled panels at the base of the gate (R170) are separated from the spindles above by a band pierced in a chain design. At the close of the century rejas of Renaissance inspiration, although of less magnificence, were still being erected. Worthy of its best traditions, lightness and elegance are admirably combined in the cresting R170 of the screen protecting the Capilla Mayor in the Con- REJA GATE Late sixteenth vent of San Pedro Mártir,Toledo. To date, no document century giving its rejero has been published, but a contract dated 1618 refers to its repairs and resetting under the direction of the architect Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli. Of this period is a reja band (R144) similar to that of a cloister reja in León Cathedral. At the springing point of the foliated S- scrolls is a fleur-de-lis cut in silhouette and attached to the band. Among the rejas which show the influence of the architect of the Escorial, Herrera, is the screen before the choir of Plasència Cathedral, which was inscribed: Jvannes Baptista Celma pictor faciebat—anno Domini 1604. Restrained in manner with a monotonous repetition of pediments and medallions serving as the cresting ornament, it lacks the vitality of earlier ironwork. In the last part of the century the teachings of the great rejeros of the Renaissance were forgotten, and rejas like that at Jerez de la Frontera in the Carthusian Monastery were the fashion. Thick, over-elaborate leaf scrolls form the heavy ornament. The cult of churriguerismo led many a good workman astray in the labyrinth of baroque. Soon discarding the severe architecturalism of the Herreran style, the locksmith reveled in the use of luxuriant floral forms. Unrealistic, they have been aptly described as not a flower with petals and stalk but a symmetrical combination of forms giving the sensation of a flower. The clustered, slightly repousse petals of the knocker (R13I) suggest, yet do not im- itate, an open rose. It is to be noted that where, in Renaissance ironwork, leaf and blossom were subor- dinate to a central well-defined scheme, they are now an end m themselves While the imagination of the cerrajero was less active than that of his prede- 232 IRONWORK cessors, his hand was skillful, and he spent a tremendous amount of time upon the mechanism and ornament of locks and keys of great refinement. keys Seventeenth century The finely chiseled keys which were in favour during the seventeenth cen- tury were inspired by those of the French Renaissance. The published work of Jacques Androuet du Cerceau, who died about 1584, included designs for keys with addorsed figures upon the bow, a handsome capital of classic form, and a four-faced stem. In the following century many variations appeared in France and Spain, such as the key R23 with its winged, addorsed sirens. Other keys of the period used dolphins, or copper-soldered rosette lacery in the bow; many keys of the latter style were made in Italy. In certain keys, attention was con- centrated upon the stem which was often triangular (as on R19I) or divided into three barrels and ornamented with many mouldings (as on R17). Most Var- gueños of this century used a key patterned after R191. The intricate structure of key shafts like that of R17 which could only have been executed by a skilled cerrajero indicates the flourishing state of the craft in Spain. As a convenience, a small hole was frequently made at the top of the key bow by which it might be hung. An open space above the mould- ing or capital, originally intended to hold a minute effigy or symbol, was often incorporated within the design of the key bow (as on RI88). To the irritation of Basque and Navarrese smiths, Italian armourers, masters of the chisel and graver, were imported by Philip the Second as instructors at Egui; they gave of their """ knowledge as grudgingly as the Spaniards accepted it. More key success attended the efforts of the Infante Don Fernando, century brother of Philip the Fourth, and archbishop of Toledo. In the hope they would revive a moribund art, he brought to the court Sanchez de Miruena and his disciple Gaspar Fernández. They were armourers and engravers of repute at Salamanca, a town long noted for its excellent products of the chisel. Although 233 HISPANIC SOCIETY the Infante died in 1641, his proteges continued to improve their work, and their followers formed the School of Madrid, a last flower- ing of cerrajería in Spain. The ironwork of this group of skilled artisans, among whom figured Francisco Martinez, Juan Gómez, Juan Llorente Montero, and Pedro Calbo, was characterized by plates engraved and cut with Biblical scenes or symmetrical designs based upon the scroll and fleur-de-lis. Religious symbols or the insignia of an order were often incorporated within the tracery. A representative number of locks remain in their original locations in the churches and convents of Madrid. Notable works, signed and dated, may be seen in the Cathedral of San Isidro, in the church of the Augustine Convent of Santa Isabel, and also in the Convent of the Magdalenas, Alcalá de Henares. To this style belongs a knocker (R142) with a back- plate of S-scroll tracery bearing the cross fleury, the knocker emblem of several orders. Possibly the Dominican Seventeenth century Order was intended, as the arms of the cross are divided by an incised line and the spindled, volute-tipped hammer terminates in a canine head. In Spain the black and white cross fleury of the Dominicans was often used in conjunction with dogs, symbolical of their guardianship of the Church during the Inquisition. A less worthy example is a ring knocker (R93), surmounted by a crown and surrounded by an awkwardly cut garland. At the centre is the monogram avm (Ave Virgo Maria). Although all orders paid homage to the Virgin, this knocker may have been in use at a convent of the Conceptionists, a sister- hood founded in her honour. An alharelo (E867) in the Society's collection bears this monogram and came from a convent of the order at Sevilla. Animal figures survived the changing styles but became more sophisticated in the seventeenth century. They appear in several knockers of the collection, including one (R125) with the hammer formed by a serpent with a canine head, and one (R123) with a barking dog. Both employ rec- tangular backplates with fleur-de-lis or vine trac- ery enclosed by a moulding. The type is consid- ered Aragonese. Pierced, rectangular backplates, severely framed with scroll tracery added at the VARGUEÑO lockplate Seventeenth Madrid with century top and bottom, were used at a stylized animal hammer, and examples of the style were frequent in north- ern Spain. Vargueños hold an important place among the many objects decorated with 234 IRONWORK iron scrollwork. Animal figures were combined with volutes, j^eurs-de-Zîs, squares, _ ovals, and circles to form the pierced mounts which applied to the drop front of Desk S43. Heraldic lions or leopards stand rampant or parade in stiff silhouettes upon the gilded lock and bolt plates which *werewere usually backed by crimson velvet (as on R129). The work of the cerrajero was lightened by his use of moistened cut-out patterns of Cebti paper, which, when flame was applied, left delineated upon the surface of the plate a guide for the piercing to follow. As a rule vargueño locks had a double hasp and catch ; the style was a modification of the angled-hasp shell locks used on chests during the reign of the R137 Catholic Kings. A variant of this lock ^ angled hasp with Seventeenth century ' but one catch. Chest l^ocks em- ployed but one tapering hasp decorated with chiseled or pierced ornament. The plate was pierced with various patterns; scrolls and fleurs-deMs were the most common motives (as on R137). The flat lockplates were round, oval, square, or polygonal in shape, and the piercing formed a border of openwork (as on RI27). Locks with a straight hasp and a hinged plate concealing the keyhole were as popular as their Gothic forbears. In one lock (R137) di fleur- de-lis when pulled down releases the catch holding the plate. As the art of the forge waned, that of the chisel and graver grew and prospered, most nearly attaining perfec- tion towards the end of the i great period of hand-wrought sometimes wî used and the etched * design lock * 1 11,1 1 Seventeenth , century deepened by the graver, but regularity was difficult in iron and the process did not achieve great success among Spanish artisans. The surface of a lock (R1I4) in the col- ^ lection, engraved with a flowering vine and once gilded, is an example of seventeenth-century taste. Rosettes and pierced tracery further orna- ment the hasp and lockplate. The form is a de- scendant of those with a chest lock raised lock box, long Seventeenth century hasp, and heavy bar which secured the gates of Gothic rejas. The hasp bar of this lock was held by rings which are now missing. Scissors and flints also were elaborately 235 HISPANIC SOCIETY engraved during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; Albacete, a town still noted for its cutlery, was one of the principal centres. Utensils in daily use did not escape the ubiquitous scroll decoration; well covers, trivets, and kitchen racks, such as the simply fashioned R204, were adorned with feathery scrolled tendrils and undulating bits of metal wound like fine wire. A two-storied brazier (R164) employs for the frame sur- rounding the upper charcoal pan a close design of intersecting diagonals, beneath which project scrolled brackets. The spirally twisted legs imitate the furniture decoration in fashion during the second half of the sev- enteenth century. The School of Madrid achieved great success during the first half of the eighteenth century when a high degree of technical skill had been developed among its members. Locks and bolts signed by Bias de Mansilla, Marcos Amigo, Simón López, and Juan Gil are representative of Madrid cerrajería. An excellent example of the work by Juan Antonio González, a lock dated 1730, is in the Church of San Cayetano, Madrid. A knocker (R124) in the collection, although of the period, does not equal in delicacy of execution or harmony of scrollwork the lock by González. The ovate backplate of scroll and floral tracery is given distinction by two lions supporting the cross of the Order of Santiago. The stirrup-shaped hammer is surmounted at the joining of the volutes by a baluster tipped by a pediment and an acanthus leed of classic inspiration. About the middle of the century the Greek revival induced by the excavations of Hercu- laneum and Pompeii had set in. Designs based upon the Greek key, pediment, and acanthus forms were the fashion; the vagaries of baroque were dominated by the straight line. To this period belongs a knocker (R130) with a fretted moulding and a backplate of traceried and addorsed volutes. The hammer ter- minated by a dragon head retains the incised line and circle decoration of Muhammadan origin. In France many books of design for ironwork were published during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, some of which surely found their way to the workshops of Spanish smiths. The suave elegance of the French taste displayed in the design of Hugues Briseville, Mathurin Jousse, and Jean Bérain was imperfectly rendered by the Spanish rejero, his work thereby losing the vigour and spontaneity which had 236 IRONWORK long distinguished it. In the churches of El Carmen and San José, Madrid, there are rejas surmounted by ray-filled lunettes instead of crestings, the main part of the screen filled with spindles, vertical panels of restrained ornament, and horizontal bands of chain designs. Spanish rejeros were more successful in their interpretation of French de- sign when they applied it to balconies and railings. At Santiago de Compostela, in the Church of San Martin Pinario, a railing in the French man- ner extends across the nave, and at Barcelona and Palma de Mallorca there are many balconies and railings of scrolled ironwork. The Spanish feeling for the countercurves of the baroque style is illustrated by two simple brackets (R175- RI76) in the collection, once used as lantern supports. Gilding and green paint cover the scrolled leaf tendrils and spindles, characteristic of the brackets, railings, and balconies which adorned the elegant mansions and palaces in Late I7th-early 18th century eighteenth-century Spain. Fashionable doors pre- sented to the visitor's hand a scroll-shaped, spindled hammer such as R136. Embossed with an acanthus leaf, terminating in leaf rosettes, and originally gilded, it bears upon the grip a shield with a cross fleury. The striker is missing. The rococo style of France, a late baroque employing luxuriant large-leaved foliage and shell work made a strong appeal to the Spaniard; his adaptation of Gothic and Renaissance forms to create the estilo Isabel and the plateresque had previously revealed an innate preference for elaborate ornament. The side reja of the Capilla Mayor in Cuenca Cathedral, of beautiful work- manship and design, is an eloquent argument for the style which attained great popularity. The gilded keys of the eighteenth century reflect the taste for baroque ornament; many employed leaf tendrils to form the bow. Garlands of foliage were often happily combined with human figures centrally placed. The custom of presenting palace keys to the nobles and ministers of the court spread in Spain to private houses and corporations, resulting in the fabri- cation of keys with the insignia of military or religious orders or the arms of a household. Foliated and shell R136 ornaments were used with lion-headed scrolls to sup- KNOCKER port a crown and central cartouche. Another type dis- Eighteenth century played initials aRt t1h7e6centre of the bow, imitating those of royal invention; keys with interlaced initials werLeAknNowTnEasRmNarriaBgeRkAeyCs. KET 237 HISPANIC SOCIETY The eighteenth century which had witnessed the triumph of the Madrid locksmiths also saw the decline of the art. To Pedro Pastrana of Madrid is due the introduction of mechanical devices and cast work which had heretofore scarcely appeared except in cannons. Although designs of the greatest intricacy could be executed in cast iron, the sensitive hand of the smith was of little value in handling the mass of molten iron which, without the animating force of the smith's enthusiasm, resolved itself into lifeless patterns. Iron and steel, the traditional servants of the soldier, were stubborn in the hands of the cannon makers. Heavy and unwieldy, the great forged-iron bom- bards of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were more effective in the train of a monarch than upon the battlefield. Since iron artillery proved brittle and therefore incapable of withstanding the stress of firing, it was replaced early in the sixteenth century by great can- nons of bronze cast in earthen or sand moulds. To insure uniform excellence they were subjected to a severe examination by an official of the State. The foundries in Spain were not at first owned by the government, and its requirements were met by independent founders who worked on contract. One of these was Juan Morel whose workshop erected about 1565 was sold to the State in 1647 to become the Sevilla factory. Of particular interest, since the cannon at the Hispanic Society Wcis cast by a Solano, is the probability that Matías Solano, elder of two Solanos, who was in 1703 founder and chief engineer to the King, was one of those who managed the Sevilla factory. José Solano, whose cannon El Asiano (R2013) is now in the collection of the Society, was appointed assistant at the Sevilla foundry on January 6th, 1744. In 1756, a Juan Solano, in all probarb2il0ity1t3he same man as José, took over the foundry for ten years, remaining responsible until it was returned to the King. El Asiano is a twelve-pounder, a class of solano cannon which originated in Spain jose and was at this time regulation equipment. On the first reënforce is the coat of El Asiano, a bronze cannon. 1762 arms of Castilla and León, surmounted by the royal crown of Spain and en- circled by the collar of the Golden Fleece. The three banderoles bear the name of the reigning king: carolus hi d.g. hispan, et ind. rex ., the phrase: violati fulmina. regis. (Thunderbolts of an outraged king) and the name: el asiano. The handles are dolphin-shaped, and the chase, touchhole, and cascabel are ornamented with acanthus leaves. Cast at Sevilla, it was signed on the base of the breech solano fecit, hispali. anno. 1762. 238 IRONWORK The cannon may have been cast for the warship Asia which was sunk at the entrance to Havana harbour during the Seven Years' War. El Asiano has been traced to Ceuta, Morocco, whence it was shipped to Frankfort-on-the-Main and there sold to an Austrian bellfounder to be melted down. The cannon attracted the attention of Archduke Eugene who removed it in 1901 to his armoury at Fortress Hohenwerfen, Salzburg. That the craft of the smith did not completely disappear with its decadence in the eighteenth century is due in part to the efforts of the Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del Pais which since 1768 has taken an energetic rôle in the develop- ment of the iron industry in the Basque Provinces. It has published various scientific treatises and sought new markets for iron products, its interest re- suiting in the retention of this industry as an important activity of the Basques. Nevertheless, a gradual decline in the powers of the guilds set in during the eighteenth century, culminating in 1833 when the right of free manufacture, which deprived them of authority, was proclaimed. Although the Catalan guild at Barcelona weakened during the nineteenth century,, interest has since been greatly revived. Juan José of Madrid, whose plateresque work, characteristic of Castilian smiths, is inspired by the artists of the Renaissance, and Gerard Alegre of Barcelona who, relying largely upon Gothic forms, emphasizes the vigorous grotesques of fifteenth-century Cataluña, retain an eminent position among modern smiths. Santiago Rusiñol, whose extensive collection of Catalan ironwork at the Museu del Cau Ferrai, Sitges, has gained wide renown, described Alegre as "a continuator of the Pleiad of smiths which Cataluña has possessed since the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; of those anonymous and great artists of the forge who 'embroidered' with the hammer". A. S. D. ■ r>. ï Wiííiií Ipii^Sp-' " . I "L'"' \ ► i', : s ^.-'ÍS-·-'W-íí" - fvl í,aí;<.. fi.-, ^ . .Síïf:«í ,wmm I T Y&í-l, w. jy^^éâMËm FURNITURE sM'>?jm|^.~,, ■ -- - j i> *í' *¡fj¡, -■». . . .. _ . .. , „ '^'')^!'h¡^"?-w'^- j'Ci^.L:, .V. -. ..> .: ■.ír«.. -L· .....:,v...... ••s¿v -^r V •' ; :r';> • -y- - ts-'- %i;--... i-ia»:s»i á.-íCr?. ■ --...í'' Fifteenth century VII Vivid miniatures, as in the Cantigas de Sania Mana and El tratado de ajedrez, prepared under the direction of Alfonso the Wise, record the furniture of mediaeval Spain. Thrones, chairs, and stools appear in the illustrations, together with benches, beds, and chests, all brightly painted, inlaid or carved with simple geometric designs. Some pieces built during the Middle Ages have endured, but the second half of the fifteenth century is the earliest period from which a repre- sentative number has been preserved. Gothic design, crossing the French border in the thirteenth century, had, by the reign of the Catholic Kings, reached full flower. Trefoils, crocheted pinnacles, flamboyant ogival tracery, and plant forms copied from the eccle- siastical architecture of northern Spain replaced the Romanesque scrolls and geometric patterns of earlier decorative furniture, although designs of Moor- ish character continued to be in favour. With the growth of middle-class pros- perity, civil architecture flourished, and demands for articles to furnish the new town and guild halls, lonjas, palaces, and private residences of richly carved stone, greatly increased. The artisans who met these demands belonged to the carpenters' guild, a large and powerful organization which included at this time not only furni- ture makers but also turners, artists who painted chest panels, and a dozen or more other subsidiary units. Although mention of carpenters as an organized group is found recorded by the year 1257, the earliest known official recogni- 243 HISPANIC SOCIETY tion of the guild as a religious and charitable brotherhood is in 1393 when a royal privilege was granted by John the First at Tortosa. By the fifteenth cen- tury the guild had gradually changed from a social to a business association chiefly concerned with supervising the production and sale of goods. Saint Joseph was chosen as patron saint replacing Saint Luke, earlier patron of Valencian carpenters, and Saint John the Baptist, formerly honoured thus at Barcelona. It was in the middle of this cen- tury that the creation of a masterpiece as a test of skill to be judged by a committee of jurymen be- came a necessary requirement for the carpenter who wished to be a master craftsman and to open a shop. The building of this test piece and the payment of a fee to the guild treasurer completed the man's long preparation for his craft, which included four years of apprenticeship to a mas- ter and three more years as a trained worker or journeyman. During the fifteenth century, carpenters who constructed furniture were known in the Kingdom Detail of lock of Aragon as caixers, a name which distinguished them from bosquets, builders of ceilings, doors, and other architectural features, or from capsers, who made undecorated boxes. The majority of articles manu- factured by these artisans were chests {areas or arcones). The Marquis of Monistrol has classified areas into seven divisions according to usage as: burial chests or tombs, chests for the safeguarding of vestments and other valuables of the church, archive chests, treasure chests or hutches, brides' chests, arms chests, and those of common make for the storage of clothing and household goods in humble dwellings. Always fitted with handles, they were easily car- ried from one place to another and not only served for storage and baggage but were also used as seats, or, when piled with cushions or spread with cloth, as beds and tables. Either carving, painting, gilding, inlay, or upholstery of leather or cloth was used for their decoration. They might also be further en- riched by ornamental mountings of metal. Chests with convex lids of more or less pronounced height were known as cofres. These, when covered with leather or velvet, bound with iron, sometimes bearing the arms or monogram of the owner, were used by noble ladies of the period as marriage chests or trunks in which to keep and transport their costliest gowns. Crimson, blue, and purple were favourite colours for coverings, and the ironwork which conformed to the lines of the chest was usually gilded. Such a cofre (558) of the late fifteenth century is on exhibition at the Hispanic Society. This pine chest upholstered with crimson velvet was, in all probability, built to contain the trousseau of a bride belonging to a prosperous family. The rectangular body and domed lid 244 FURNITURE are strapped with bars of iron terminating in shells. The lid is banded with double tracery of ogival design with fleur-de-lis cresting and cusped edge. The arched ends of the lid and the sides of the body are also banded with Gothic tracery. A central padlock decorated with turreted pinnacles, diagonal lines, and an incised mask is placed between two square shell locks with similar pin- nades and geometric designs of dots. Handles at each end of the chest show a line and circle pattern of Moorish inspiration. The rose-coloured silk damask lining of the interior is not original but appears to be of the eighteenth cen- tury. In Spain there are several chests of like form and decoration in private collections. The great cathedral towns of Burgos, Palència, and León in the north were centres of chest making. Arcones in domestic use were copied from those built for the churches, which were carved in the manner of the choir-stalls and retablos with designs showing Flemish and German characteristics. Walnut was the favoured wood for this work although oak, pine, and chestnut were also used. Carving was never applied but was executed upon the actual sur- face of the panels. As a rule, these massive, rectangular arcones had plain, flat lids, moulded plinths, and unframed front and side panels covered with Gothic tracery. The contents were secured by large, ornamental, square locks with single or double hasps below which might be carved coats of arms. It was not unusual for chests of similar structure to be painted, instead of sculp- tured, with scenes from the life of Christ, the lives of the Saints, and from metrical romances. This fashion had become popular during the previous cen- tury. A feature, more often seen on pieces of Moorish workmanship, was dec- oration upon the inner side of the lid. An unusual painted chest illustrating this characteristic is in the Castle of Peralada, Gerona, the designs of the ex- terior and inner side of the lid being Near Eastern and the carvings of the base of like pattern. Some arcones-huches opened at the front, displaying a number of drawers for the storage of valuables. Popular as bridal chests, these were made principally in Cataluña. They were decorated with gilded mouldings and vertical central panels carved with ogives, flanked by square panels on which were painted heraldic emblems, Gothic symbols or inscriptions. The mudejar style of ornamentation, a mingling of Muhammadan and Christian de- signs, endured in Spain long after the Recon- quest. Moorish craftsmen decorated articles of furniture with a maze of carved interlacery or with painted and inlaid patterns of Eastern derivation. Mudejar chests, boxlike in form, were covered with intricate geometric inlay of bone and fine woods. Small, ornamental boxes (arquetas or cofrecillos), used for jewels, trinkets, and im- 245 HISPANIC SOCIETY portant documents, were made in exact likeness to large Gothic and mudejar chests. Seating furniture had previously been so scarce that the possession of a chair denoted high rank. By the end of the fifteenth century, however, in a family of means, the head of the household used a great armchair, while the other members sat upon small chairs, benches, chests, stools, or cushions. Chairs for distinguished visitors had backs of moderate height and were often hung with cloth. The master's chair of state was copied from the enormous ecclesiastical thrones of the churches, one of the most beautiful being the priory chair of the Cartuja de M iraflores. Burgos, which is delicately carved with ogival tracery and surmounted by a spire-shaped canopy of elaborate pierced work. State chairs, although not always topped with canopies, had backs of considerable height and were carved in proportion to the wealth and importance of their owners. Another seat developed at this time was the hip-joint chair or sillon de cadera. Its framework was built of pivoted, tangent semicircles, one set forming the legs, and the other the seat, hung with leather and fitted with a cushion. Arms could be attached to the extrem- ities of the upper half, and a piece of cloth or leather stretched between them formed a back. The woodwork of such chairs was, in most cases, hidden be- neath Moorish inlay. Because of the great expense and scarcity of decorative furniture and because of the insecurity of life in mediaeval Spain, much of it was built in such a way that it could be taken apart or folded and carried on muleback from one residence to another. This was customarily true of hip- joint chairs. Examples of this period appear at the Cathedral of Toledo. In Burgos Cathedral there are others, believed to have been used by the judges of Castilla, and in England there is a well-preserved example in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Benches ranged in style from simple forms used at table to massive state seats with carvings copied from those of choir-stalls. Beneath the seats of most benches and many large chairs were chests in which were stored linen, money, and even food. All furniture of this kind was solid and heavy as if built to accommodate men in armour. The most common seat was the undecorated stool (escabel or banquete). Women seldom used chairs but sat upon the floor, Moorish fashion, on cushions or rugs. The tables which appear in miniatures or woodcuts are covered and seem to consist of undecorated planks upheld by trestle supports or central, footed posts. The beds shown in woodcuts, carvings, and in panels by primitive painters are very large, set on bases fitted with chests, and usually surmounted by can- opies. Their decorative importance was in the textiles covering the framework, itemized descriptions of which are given in fifteenth-century inventories. Such a description is made of a bed listed among the gifts to Princess Margaret of Austria upon her marriage to Prince Juan of Castilla in 1497. This sumptuous piece of furniture was decked with three crimson brocade hangings emblazoned with the royal arms and trimmed with embroidery of silver gilt, a canopy let- tered with the marriage symbols, four valances similarly decorated and like- wise lined with linen buckram, and many other colourful accessories. 246 FURNITURE CABINET Sixteenth century 247 HISPANIC SOCIETY The use of armarios or cabinets was not yet popular in Spain, as people preferred to store their goods in portable chests. A number of cabinets were imported from Germany and Italy but the majority, whether of foreign or domestic construction, found their way into church sacristies rather than into private houses. One of the few armarios which remain from this time is at Madrid in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional. It has two stories with panels closely carved with ogival tracery and corners bearing turreted pinnacles. Señor Bordono of Madrid possesses a pair of mudejar cabinets of the same period, which are three stories in height with painted interiors. The exterior and inner sides of the doors are covered with interlacery of small strips of wood resembling in design the ornamentation of Moorish doors and ceilings. It was not until the following century that armarios took their place as important pieces of household equipment. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, carpenters, following the lead of architects, adopted the designs of the Italian Renaissance, combining them with Gothic forms. During this period of transition, florid Gothic decoration of French and north-European inspiration was gradually dismissed in favour of the new style, which, because of its likeness to the delicate work of the p/a- tero or silversmith, is called plateresque. Graceful leaf scrolls and ornament made up of classical details appeared where ogival tracery had formerly ruled. At the same time mudejar designs continued to remain in use. A two-storied walnut cabinet (S51) of Renaissance construction, in the collection of the Society, displays a combination of classic and Moorish ornament. Intricate boxwood interlacery, framing snowflake patterns in bone, of stars and conven- tionalized flowers is inlaid with geometric precision over the body of the cabi- net and on the inner and outer surfaces of the paneled doors which open at the front. Inside, supported by columns and a three-centred arch with fluted pilasters, is a gallery, with colon- nettes and a balustrade, contain- ing four shallow, inlaid drawers. The entablature is carved with knulling and leaf moulding, and the spandrels of the central arch with cherubs' heads. Below the gallery are a number of drawers on some of which is inlaid a diaper of circles made up of tri- Interior angles of bone. The upper story of the cabinet can be opened at the front by raising the hinged lid. Upon the inner surface of this lid, traced in boxwood lines, are two fantastic birds with scrolled terminations, which support a cartouche bearing the monogram of 248 FURNITURE Christ (IHS) surrounded by flames. Because of the religious symbol which it bears, it is probable that this armario was built for the sacristy of a church or convent, to contain the vestments of the clergy and various treasures used during the service. An armaria mudejar in the Lázaro Collection, Madrid, is similar to S51 in construction and ornamentation. The Lázaro cabinet rests upon a footed stand and is without doors. It has been suggested that the gal- leries of furniture of this kind were intended to hold writing materials and papers. It would be awkward, however, because of its construction to use the cab- inet as a writing desk. Inlaid furniture was most plentiful in Andalucía and along the coast of Spain and Portugal, especially at Sevilla, Barcelona, and Lisbon. It was also made at Mallorca. Similar CHAIR work is found in Italy where it is called certasina Late sixteenth or early decoration. Inlay used not only for embellish- seventeenth century was ing armarios, but also for boxes of all kinds, chests, scissors chairs, and later, for writing desks or bargueños. The conquest of America and the expansion of Spain under Charles the Fifth brought great national prosperity, which was reflected in all branches of artistic endeavour, including the construction of furniture. Walnut con- tinned to maintain its supremacy over other woods as the kind of material most desirable for this work. Carving, inlay of ivory and choice woods from the East, fittings wrought of silver from America, upholstery of embroidered textiles or colourfully worked leather, and gilded ironwork added an abun- dance of rich ornamentation. Silver was, in fact, used in such quantity through- out the century that in order to avoid waste and to overcome the frauds prev- aient at the time, Philip the Second at Aranjuez on May 19th, 1593, pro- mulgated a sumptuary law, published at Madrid the following year, which forbade the making, buying, and sale of cabinets, chests, braziers, tables, and many other articles decorated with beaten, embossed, stamped, carved, or plain silver. The punishment for disregarding this decree was not only the loss of the object but also the payment of one third of the amount of its worth to the King's treasury, one third to the informer, and one third to the judge who sentenced the offender. Among those with a taste for opulent furnishings was the ill-starred sec- retary of Philip the Second, Antonio Pérez, who possessed in his magnificent house at Madrid, wherein he entertained such illustrious guests as Don Juan of Austria, beds, chairs, braziers, boxes, and tables of silver. One of the braziers was reputed to be worth as much as sixty thousand ducats. The owner's bed was surmounted by silver angels and bore an inscription indicative of his vanity, "Antonio Pérez sleeps: tread softly..." To-day there exist few pieces of furniture on which the silver fittings have 249 HISPANIC SOCIETY been left intact, but descriptions of such articles are given in sixteenth- century inventories. An example is the one hundred and twenty-one pound silver balustrade for placing around a bed, listed in the inventory, dated 1574, of the estate of Doña Juana, sister of Philip the Second. That luxury in regard to household furnishings increased and that precious metals continued to be used for their decoration may be seen in a decree promulgated on June 2nd, 1600, at San Lorenzo by Philip the Third. This decree limited the use of gold and silver embroideries on the canopies, hangings, and covers of beds, and on the trimmings of pillows. It prohibited gold or silver brocade, silk, or embroidery for the upholstery of chairs includ- S48 ing sedan chairs, which were instead, to be covered VARGUEÑO Seventeenth with velvet, or non-metallic silk, the century fringe alone of gold or silver. The making of silver chairs was per- missible as long as they were without repoussé decoration. Silver desks and braziers, however, were prohibited with the exception of small hand braziers containing only four marks' weight of silver. Rules governing the use of chairs continued to be observed during the sixteenth century, the guest receiving a seat chosen in accordance with his rank. Large chairs and benches remained in style for a time, but the character of their construction and carved ornamentation changed to suit Renaissance tastes. A beautiful example, and one which is perhaps unique in the elaboration of its sculptural detail, is a tribunal bench bearing the escutcheon of the Ara- gonese La Cerda family, inherited by one of their descendants, the Duke of Medinaceli. The identity of the sculptor who carved this seat is unknown as it was not customary for those who built furniture to sign their productions. The leaf scrolls, wreath-encircled portrait heads, grotesques, trophies, masks, and numerous other classical devices decorating the bench are executed in the most finished plateresque style. Other seats of honour were hip-joint and scissors chairs carved with Renaissance ornament or inlaid with mudejar designs. Unlike that of their counterparts, the Dante and Savonarola chairs of Italy, the mode for these seats did not last throughout the century, and very few are still in existence. An excellent example of a hip-joint Interior chair may be seen carved on the early sixteenth- century pulpit of the Cathedral at Palència in a scene which portrays a bishop seated before a lectern upon which he is writing. The representative chair of the sixteenth century, which was used with slight modification during the 250 FURNITURE next, was the sillón frailero or monk's chair, thus named because of its com- mon use in monasteries and churches. These quadrangular, sturdily built pieces of furniture were upholstered with splendid fabrics, usually consisting of embroidered or quilted velvet edged with fringe, fastened to the back posts and seat rails by large, ornamental nails with brass, silver, or gilded-iron heads. About the middle of the century leather became the popular covering for such chairs and was either plain, stitched with geo- metric designs, or embossed in coloured and gilded patterns. Guadameciles or embossed leathers, called Cordovan from their centre of manufacture, were in great demand for chair backs. Early sillones fraile- ros were dismountable, but when the stuffs forming the seats were no longer hung but were attached to the four seat rails, this was less often the case. The VARGUEÑO Seventeenth century framework of these chairs was walnut. The front legs, often fluted, continued above the seat to form arm posts supporting either straight or sloping arms usually scrolled at the ends, while the back legs, also extending above the seat, formed slightly raked back posts. These back posts were commonly terminated with an ornament—a reeded bracket, acanthus leaf, or metal finial. The legs were braced at the sides with low stretchers, some- times so close to the ground as to form runners, and at the back by a stretcher, either plain and only slightly elevated, or fretted and carved and placed above centre like the wide flattened stretcher at the front. Side chairs of the same style were also made. According to Domènech and Pérez Bueno, these simple, comfortable, yet magnificent chairs so typical of Spanish taste were widely exported throughout Europe during the sixteenth century and were the inspira- tion for similar chairs made in Italy, France, England, Germany, and the Low Countries during this century and the next. Three late sixteenth or early seventeenth-century sillones fraileros (SI5-SI7), belonging to a set, are in the Society's collection. They are of walnut with undecorated front and back posts and low side stretchers, the front and back stretchers being placed higher and shaped at the lower corners. Leather upholstery is attached to the chairs by large nails with brass rosette-shaped heads and is stitched with yellow and green silk, now faded. An heraldic poplar lecif and embroidered fleurs-de-lis decorate the backs, while on each seat, which is stitched and padded, is ap- plied a central leaf of green velvet. The seat fronts extend to form aprons em- broidered with linked rosettes and a central leaf. In construction, these pieces closely resemble chairs used by Charles the Fifth and his son Philip, which are now in the apartments of Philip the Second at the Escorial. To the legs of one of the chairs at the Escorial are fastened metal grips through which carrying poles were slid to transform the chair into a kind of sedan. When used thus, floor boards were attached to support the feet, and a canopy with 251 HISPANIC SOCIETY curtains was added. In such a chair Philip the Second was carried up into the mountains-to a point from which he could look down upon the building of the Escorial. Less severe in char- acter are many of the chairs which ap- pear in sixteenth-century paintings. Portraits of royalty and clergy painted by El Greco, Pantoja de la Cruz, and other artists show carved specimens which are covered with elaborately em- broidered velvet with heavy fringe at- tached by large gilded nails. Some- times, like Italian chairs, they were of such height that the use of footstools was PAPELERA necessary. Seventeenth century Just as sillones fraileros were the rep- resentative chairs of the Spanish Ren- aissance, vargueños were the typical cabinets or writing desks. In form, the vargueño cabinet went back to the fifteenth-century hutch, which was fitted with drawers, but unlike the hutch, its face was hinged at the bottom to fall forward instead of opening at the centre. It rested upon a stand which might be either a table, an armario or cupboard base, or the puente, an ar- caded trestle support. As a rule the armario con- tained two large drawers above two compartments with doors. Its front, decorated in Moorish fashion with geometric panels and inlay of bone or ivory plaques, was painted and gilded, with lock plates of pierced iron fastened over scarlet velvet. In the top rail of the stand were slides which could be pulled out to support the drop front of the cabinet above, with ends carved to represent either scallop shells or gro- tesque masks. The sides of the armario were pan- eled and bore handles. Sometimes a vargueño with such a base is called a vargueño frailuno. The trestle- stand, on the contrary, had no other use than to sup- port the cabinet. At each end turned columns rose from runner feet to cross rails or blocks on which the cabinet rested. In these blocks were pulls similar to those of the armario. A central, arcaded stretcher, usually carved with Renaissance designs and often VARGUEÑO Sixteenth surmounted by turned century finials, braced the ends. When closed, the Vargueño cabinet appears to be a large walnut box with side handles and hinged front. Customarily, its only decoration is the ironwork 252 FURNITURE which is attached to the exterior of the drop front. Iron mounts, pierced with conventionalized scroll patterns, bordered with cable moulding, and fastened by ornamental nails, are backed by crimson vel- vet. The large lock, its traceried plate frequently depicting lions rampant, has a double hasp and catch, and the lock box is mortised into the wood so that it is flat with the inner surface and allows only the rivet heads to be seen. Two diamond- shaped mounts flanking the lock are centred by drop pulls. At either side of the lid are two sets of bolts, backed by pierced plaques, to relieve the strain on the central lock, and at the upper corners of the cabinet, attached to angle braces, are hooks and eyes. Each of the inner hinges of S42 VARGUEÑO the fall front is held by three large nails driven Late sixteenth or early through to the front where scallop shells conceal seventeenth century their ends. When the lid of the cabinet is lowered, tiers of drawers and small compartments are revealed, glowing with gold and rich colours. Some of the larger drawers and compartment doors came to be built like porticoes with turned columns and entablatures with broken pedi- ments. Gold laid over a gesso wash covers fluted consoles beneath the col- umns, reedings between them, the pediments, and the edges of the panels. The remaining drawers of various sizes, with columns at either end, are faced in Moorish style with a diaper of bone or ivory inlay. These pieces of inlay are often painted or engraved with a variety of black-line designs and are set in lozenges and other small panels connected by gilded strapwork. A pull of gilded iron, ordinarily in the shape of a pilgrim shell, is centred in each drawer. Many of the drawers have secret receptacles concealed in their bases. Some- times the door of the middle compartment opens to disclose a nest of inner drawers. The purpose of the vargueño as revealed by the fittings of the interior was for the stor- age of small treasures, documents, and writ- ing materials. A great number of these desks must have been constructed in all parts of Spain during this century and the next, for examples from these periods are still plenti- ful throughout the country. Most common of all was the iron-mounted or classic form, here described, which reached the height of its popularity in the seventeenth century, and of S42 which S48 and S76 are typical examples. Detail of interior Early pieces were made by Moorish artisans. These cabinets were usually covered with geometrically arranged inlay and were without elaborate iron 253 HISPANIC SOCIETY mountings or architectural features. So strong was Moorish influence over the construction and ornamentation of vargueños, that, throughout their his- tory, they seldom lacked some elements purely Muhammadan in character. As the century progressed, cabinets carved with Renaissance designs appeared. Said to have come from the Province of Aragon are those which dis- play plateresque carvings of pierced boxwood ap- plied over silk or velvet. Such a vargueño (S47), carved inside with boxwood backed by crimson satin, is in the Society's collection. The exterior is unusual, for the cabinet is without iron mounts and rests upon a carved, arcaded trestle-stand which has lion-head supports instead of pulls. The top of the cabinet may be lifted up to stand against the wall, exhibiting the inner surface which bears square Seventeenth century plaques containing portrait medallions of helmeted warriors in silhouette. These plaques are framed with applied beads and reels, and S-scrolled foliated strapwork. Below the lid is a compartment containing six shallow drawers, decorated with urns flanked by confronted grotesque birds and equipped with central, vase-shaped, brass pulls. The main body of the cabinet is bordered at the top and sides with strapwork and is fitted with tiers of drawers similar to those above, but larger and carved with greater care and skill. At either side is a compartment, on the door of which a portrait medallion has been applied. On the inner surface of the drop lid is a geometric pattern of Moorish inlay. The hinges of the lid are cut in the form of fleurs-de-lis. Another vargueño (S42), dating from the close of the sixteenth century, is also unlike the traditional iron-mounted type. The cabinet, set upon a carved and arcaded trestle sup- port, is inlaid with ivory and light-coloured wood, probably box. On the lower section of the drop lid appears the facade of a brick building with a large central portal, flanked by two grilled windows sur- mounted by shell-hooded crestings, and two small doors of classic design. Above the brickwork there is a profusion of conventionalized flowers, stars, and geometrical and architectural designs. Beneath the lock plate, perhaps a later addition to the cabinet, a coat of arms has been placed. The second and third quarterings are obliterated but the first shows Interior a lion rampant within a bordure charged with eight roundels, and the fourth, three caldrons within a bordure charged with seven roundels. Surrounding the drop lid is an inlaid cable border within an applied moulding set with chevrons made up of minute triangular pieces of ivory. 254 FURNITURE Fine lines of wood framing pieces of ivory trace geometric star patterns and foliated scrolls on the writing surface of the drop front and on the ends of the cabinet to which drop handles are attached. The hinged top is fastened to the body of the cabinet with hooks and displays on its outer surface wheels, stars, and budded scrolls, and on the inner, similar motives and arcades and col- umns framing vases and urns of flowers. When the top is raised a shallow com- partment appears, below which are tiers of inlaid drawers with metal lyre- shaped pulls, and two compartments with doors faced with inlaid porticoes. Closely akin to the Vargueño was the papelera, a smaller cabinet without the drop front, of which S50 is an example. Papeleras were usually raised upon feet and were supported by small tables. Like vargueño cabinets they were deco- rated according to the current fashion with mudejar, plateresque, classic, and later, in the seventeenth century, ba- roque designs. Other sixteenth-century cabinets based upon the principles of the vargue- ño were falling-front secretaries. These writing desks were made up of cabinets placed on hutch bases. Tiers of figures forming pilasters were, as a rule, carved at the corners of the upper body. In con- struction, such pieces of furniture fol- lowed the architectural trend of Italian work, their carved friezes, cornices, and mouldings resembling those of classical buildings. Renaissance furniture design, in harmony with the simplicity of Herreran architecture, continued to be in use throughout the first half of the seven- teenth century. At the end of this period, a reaction appeared in the accept- ance of the extravagant baroque style with its twisted columns, scrolled and broken lines, and naturalistic carvings in high relief. This fashion, near the end of the century, became known as churrigueresco from the name of its principal exponent, José Churriguera, a famous Salamancan architect. Foreign influences which, during the Bourbon dynasty were to dominate Spanish fur- niture design, gained as the century progressed. Furniture although sumptuous in design was still very limited in variety, and the amount owned by even wealthy people was hardly adequate for domes- tic comfort. This condition existed in every European country, the scarcity being such that when foreign ambassadors were invited by the French court to Fontainebleau they were asked to bring their own beds, hangings, and crockery. In El día de fiesta, a novel of manners and customs by Juan de Zabaleta published at Madrid in 1654 and 1660, the furnishings of a fine seventeenth- 255 HISPANIC SOCIETY century residence are described. Because of the slowness with which styles and tastes changed on the Peninsula this interior differs little from those of the previous century: "She enters a reception room containing benches with backs and some chests. She walks from here to a room, the walls of which are covered with copies of paintings. Around the sides of the room are placed chairs no longer new. Then she goes into a drawing-room lighted by glass windows that illumi- nate a most beautiful and vivid scene made by a Flemish tapestry... This is the first drawing-room. [Here are] cushions and chairs of crimson velvet; a Turkish rug so large and so varied that it appears to be a great garden. In the mid- die of it [is] an unlighted si]ver brazier that, among its flowers and pictures, seems more like a fountain than a bra- zier... Then she enters a large hall in which scarlet cloths cut in equal and suitable lengths, with pointed-edged trimming, serve as hangings, [there are] pillows of the same material with the same edging, leather chairs, the nails of which have gilded heads, a Tyrian rug woven with a carnation pattern, on it a brazier with a case of ebony and ivory, full of burning olive stones, so ki'ge, that it might be judged a pool of hot ashes. Among the chairs, at suitable distances, [are] secretaries of costly materials, of fine design, [bearing] lifelike wooden statues... In the corners, [are] cabi- nets that guard an infinite number of expensive trifles... This is the formal drawing-room, further on is the intimate one. She enters the bedroom, here is a bed with seasonable drapery and a dais covered with the same material as the drapery. The lady of the house is standing here with a cordial air; they take cushions and sit down." The dais in the bedroom was probably a slightly raised platform furnished with chairs or cushions and separated from the rest of the room by a railing; here it was customary for ladies to receive their friends. During the seventeenth century vargueños remained in the highest favour. One, which is now at the Hispanic Society (S77) is decorated at the front with formalized mountings of iron over crimson velvet and within, by bone inlay, twisted colonnettes, porticoes, and gilded mouldings on the usual arrange- ment of drawers and compartments. Designs etched in black upon the surfaces of the bone plaques represent wreathed portrait heads of Roman emperors in silhouette, flower and leaf forms, birds, and animals of the chase. The ornate door of the large central compartment opens to disclose a nest of three inner drawers, heavily gilded and inlaid with pieces of bone upon which leaping animals have been etched. The front of the cupboard base is also inlaid with decorated bone plaques, those on the stiles showing dogs in pursuit of wild 256 FURNITURE boars, stags, rabbits, and foxes. The animals are like those pictured in the hunting scenes which ornament many pieces of seventeenth-century pottery produced at Talavera de la Reina and Triana. Vastly different from this richly decorated cabinet is vargueño S45. Its interior, fitted with twelve drawers and two compartments, is also inlaid with bone plaques, but, unlike those of S77, they are simply faceted with black lines, gilding is used sparingly, and the mould- ings are plain. In the centre of two of the drawers stands an inlaid cross beneath TABLE Seventeenth century a shell-hooded niche. Such crosses also appear on a similar Vargueño cabinet in the collection of the Detroit Institute of Arts. Another writing desk, in em earlier fashion, is vargueño 874. The scrolled tracery of the ironwork adorning its exterior resembles patterns used by smiths of the School of Madrid. The cupboard base, of traditional form, is painted and gilded. Its pulls, which support the drop lid, terminate with the gilded heads of grotesque beasts. The interior of the cabinet is decorated in the Ren- aissance style and lacks the customary elements of Moorish design. The drawers are long and narrow, without colonnettes or secret compartments. In the centre is a shallow, open space to accommodate inkwells, flanked by fluted pi- lasters painted gold and blue. On either side of this space are cupboard doors carved with coats of arms. The arms at the right appear to be of the Mogrovejo family, while those at the left resemble the arms of the Robles family. Ac- cording to Piferrer these two families were joined by the marriage of Doña María de Robles to Don Francisco de Mogrovejo. The drawer fronts are painted red, mottled or streaked with black. Bor- ders, cartouches, leafage, swags of dra- pery, and ram and lion heads are gilded as are the flowers and fruits, some of which are painted reddish brown. The cartouches along the top row of drawers are supported by polychrome cherubs. Below them, on a long central drawer, is a cartouche flanked by two reclining female figures dressed in pink cloaks and green robes barred with gold in estofado. Joiners who specialized in decorative furniture, with the exception of chairs, were, by the seventeenth century, termed cabinetmakers (ebanistas). José Gestoso y Pérez lists the names of several, but since these men did not sign their productions, it is impossible to detect an individual's work. 257 HISPANIC SOCIETY For some time, Spanish ebanistas had suffered keen competition from foreign artisans who flooded the country with cabinets of all kinds. In 1603, Philip the Third signed a pragmatic prohibiting the importation of Nuremberg cabinets, which were made for export to the Span- ish market. In spite of laws, however, a great number of cabinets from north- ern Europe and Italy came into Spain and were copied by native creiftsmen. Many of these, built in the shape of edifices, were decorated with tortoise- shell inlay and applications of gilded bronze or with pictures on glass of myth- ological or allegorical subjects. An ex- TABLE Seventeenth century cellent example of the architectural cabinet is one in the collection of the Brooklyn Museum which is decorated with tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, and religious pictures painted at the period of Murillo. It was presented by Philip the Fourth as a model for the Monastery of San Francisco, Lima, Peru, and, according to a plaque attached to the base, was made at Sevilla in 1657 by Juan de Espinosa. During the Renaissance, innovations had been made in the construction of tables. The roughly built trestles of Gothic times, which supported table tops, became lyre-shaped supports braced by decorative wrought iron, or straight legs connected by various arrangements of stretchers. Carpenters of Upper Aragón produced a form termed Ligurian which they copied from Italian and French models. Its structure consisted of a single, or a draw top, supported by carved trestle ends braced by a horizontal stretcher usually bearing turned or fluted balusters. The most popular tables of the seventeenth century were those with splayed or lyre-shaped legs braced by ironwork. They were often built with underframing and drawers and were easily dismountable. Span- ish artisans joined legs to tables in a unique fashion. On the underside of the top, at each end, a mortise was cut to fit a crosspiece to which the legs were hinged or mortised and tenoned. The crosspiece was usually made in two parts held together by bolts, so TABLE Seventeenth that it was possible to take the table century apart even when the legs were without hinges. The ends of the crosspieces came out to the table edge and were moulded. For decoration, tables depended 258 FURNITURE upon the carving or turning of the legs and the shaping of the iron braces, as their tops were plain. Paintings by Murillo and Zurbaran show a number of these mesas. In size they ranged from the long refectory boards of the monasteries, sometimes as long as twenty feet, requiring several trestle supports, to small tocineras or "pork tables" used in the kitchen for preparing food. A few gate-legged tables with round tops were also made at this time. These are found principally in the Basque provinces. In the collection of the Society there are several walnut tables built during the seven- teenth century. An early example, 340, has lyre-shaped trestle ends carved in high relief with Renaissance leaf designs. Its top is a single, undecorated plank an inch and a half thick, over three feet wide, and nearly six feet long. The legs which rest upon paw feet are carved on both sides with curled acanthus leaves, as are the arched and scrolled stretchers from which bracing irons rise in graceful curves to the underside of the top. 330, a table of even nobler proportions, is supported by splayed trestle ends which are plain except for an incised line that follows the contour of the stretchers and winged legs. These supports are braced by 3-scrolled, iron, connecting pieces. Legs of tables, chairs, and bedposts were, in general, turned or spirally twisted during the second half of the seventeenth century. The introduc- tion into 3pain of the spiral twist, which became a common feature of baroque architecture, has been attributed to the Portuguese who are said to have taken it from Eastern sources. The splayed end trestles of table 331 are reel turned and are connected by irons to which flat 3- scrolled ornaments have been attached at the centre. 333, one of a number of tables in the collection with lyre-shaped sup- ports, is carved on the outside of each CABINET Seventeenth century scrolled leg with an acanthus leaf curled at the tip. In the centre of the lyres a turned baluster rises from the shaped stretchers to the crosspieces above. 259 HISPANIC SOCIETY Some tables at the Hispanic Society are built with underframing and drawers. A side table (S38) is fitted with three drawers and carved at the front with large rosettes and foliage in high relief. The drawers, which have iron drop pulls, are separated by fluted brackets, those at the ends carved with leaf capitals. The straight legs and four connecting stretch- ers are turned and blocked. Two centre tables (S28-S29) are carved at both front and back. The brackets which separate the draw- ers are dovetailed to the under- S20 CHAIR side of the tops. Conventional CHAIR Seventeenth century floral and geometric patterns were Seventeenth century customarily used to decorate table drawers. This is true of the carvings on the back frieze and drawer fronts of table S28, which display rosettes and flowers, and those of table S29 with geometric designs predominating. At the bottom of the underframing of these tables is an outward flared moulding which is a characteristic feature of seventeenth-century Spanish mesas. Stands or small tables, built to carry papeleras or vargueño cabinets, ordinarily had turned, splayed legs and iron braces. Table S27 in the Society's collection is of this form. According to Byne, patterned table legs generally indicate Aragonese origin, the turned leg being preferred in Castilla, and the straight unfeatured leg in the north. Following the expulsion of the Moriscos in the early part of the seventeenth century, there was a decline in the amount of furniture decorated with mudejar inlay. Ebanistas began to produce a new form of inlaid ornament which differed from the old not only in design but also in construction, for both pattern and background were laid down as veneer. New woods from the Spanish colonies and from India, principally mahogany and ebony, were used, as well as the ever popular walnut. Portuguese designs, Persian, Indian, and Chinese in character, brought from her trading posts in the East, became popular in Spain. At the Hispanic Society there are two late seventeenth-century Indo-Portuguese cabinets (S52 and S53) which were either made at Goa, India, or in Portugal from designs or examples brought back from the Goan factories. Cabinet S53, the larger of the two, is teak, decorated with veneer inlay and bandings of a dark tropical wood, and inlaid with pieces of ivory. On the top, sides, and drawers are traced foliated scrolls. Quatrefoils of mother-of-pearl adorn the knob drawer pulls. The legs, above ball and block feet, are carved with figures of mermaids. The technique of the cabinet's decoration differs from the new style, just de- scribed, in that the solid ground is cut out to receive the pattern which is shaped with a fret saw. The carcasse of S52 is of a reddish tropical wood resembling mahogany with veneer bandings probably of East Indian blackwood. Its 260 FURNITURE decoration, however, is not marquetry, as the term is now used, but inlay which is set into the solid ground. The geometric precision of the pattern even recalls Muhammadan work. The legs of the cabinet rest upon plinths carved as mermaids like those of S53, but are of a more conventionalized de- sign. The pierced backplates, keyhole escutcheons, corner braces, and drop pulls are brass. In the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, there are a number of pieces of furniture of similar form and design, covered with marquetry rather than inlaid. The Museum of Decorative Arts at Copenhagen owns an Indo-Portuguese cabinet with mermaid supports constructed like S53 and deco- rated with a pattern identical to that of S52. This geometric pattern also orna- ments a Goan cabinet owned by George C. Smith, New York, and two at the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Throughout the seventeenth century, while Spaniards were engaged in exacting tribute from their American colonies and the West Indies, the Portuguese were carrying on trade with the East. They brought back a number of contributions to furniture design, among which were a form of spiral twist, already mentioned, an early type of cabriole leg of Chinese derivation, and caning. These innovations had been utilized by Spanish ebanistas by the close of the century. They also found their way into England by means of trade, and from examples of Indo-Portuguese furniture carried to England among the furnishings of Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles the Second, whose dowry included the cities of Tangier and Bombay. A type of chair the design of which is attributed to the Portuguese was made during the seventeenth century, the seat and high back covered with guadameciles attached by large ornamental nails. The back was usually shaped with an arch at top and bottom, while the posts, and occasionally the centre of the crest, were surmounted by metal finials. The legs and stretchers were turned except for the one at the front which was carved with a rising and inter- twined scroll. As a rule, the hooflike feet were fluted and scrolled underneath in a form which is now called the Span- ish foot. These chairs were copied throughout Europe and became popular in Spain, where Córdoba, the chief leather-producing city, was a natural centre for their manu- facture. CHAIR Sillones fraileros contin- CHAIR Seventeenth century ued to be used throughout Seventeenth century the century, becoming more elaborate in decoration as time passed. The arms were often widened out of proportion to the dignified lines of the chair, carvings became more fanciful, and the upholstery richer. In the second half of the 261 HISPANIC SOCIETY century the legs, arms, and stretchers were spirally twisted or turned. As this period drew to a close, large, upholstered armchairs with tall, wide backs, serpentine stretchers, and scrolled and carved framework, which, dur- ing the reign of Louis the Four- teenth had attained great favour in France, were copied by Spanish chair makers. Other tall-backed chairs of this time were furnished with caning and were heavily carved. Such chairs were to be found only in palaces and homes of the wealthy. Country people used small, sturdy, BENCH all-wood chairs built Seventeenth century by village car- penters. A popular treatment of the back was the construction of a series of arches supported by spindles or bal- usters. Coats of arms were carved upon the backs of chairs used by church and civic dignitaries. The seats, especially of chairs built in Santander and Mallorca, were, in many cases, corded. In Castilla, Andalucía, and Cataluña it was customary for the seats to be made of rush. The carving of these chairs was never elaborate and usually consisted of gouged mouldings or simple, in- cised geometric designs. The finest pieces were built of walnut while others were of less expensive pine or beech. A number of peasant chairs in the collection of the Society, which are walnut, probably came from Spain's northern prov- inces. Chair SI9 displays an abundance of chip carving, the simple form of decoration so popular among Spanish artisans during the seventeenth century. With chisel and gouge a great variety of beautiful and forceful patterns with contrasts of light and shadow were produced. Another example of this work appears on the back of chair S20. The chair with an arcaded back is illustrated by S4 which is one of a pair. The carving of the rosettes, scrolls, panels, and mouldings testify that the builder was a workman of considerable skill. Chairs S65 and S67 show the use made of incised geometric designs. The plainness of S71 is relieved only by the turned spindles which are set in the back. A large collection of Spanish peasant chairs is in the Musco Nacional de Artes Industriales at Ma- drid. In Cataluña and the Balearic Islands a bright-coloured, high-backed chair appeared BENCH Seventeenth century at the close of the seventeenth century and this type continued to be used during the eighteenth century. It was made with a tall ladder back, the top splat rising in a circular crest usually carved with an heraldic emblem or floral device. Its rush seat was supported upon turned 262 FURNITURE BENCH Seventeenth century legs connected by stretchers of similar design. The splats of the back were flat and often decorated at the centre with carved flowers. The Museum of Cau Ferrai at Sitges possesses a number of fine examples in green and red lacquer with gilded ornaments. During the seventeenth century the wall bench continued to maintain a place of importance in Spanish interiors. A form built during the reigns of Charles and Philip remained in style throughout the first half of the century. Such a bench was supported by trestle legs constructed in the same manner as table legs, and, like them, braced with iron. The legs were usually detachable, and when this was the case, the back was hinged to fold down upon the seat, afliording ease of transportation. A great many benches were upholstered with leather or colourful velvet fastened by large decorative nails. These padded coverings were often quilted with heavy linen thread in lozenges and other simple geometric patterns. Leather-covered benches are now very rare, for the original upholstery when worn was usually replaced with less expensive materials. A common decoration for the bench without upholstery was a carved escutch- eon or heraldic metal plaque at the centre of the back. The arcaded back, set upon spindles, was another popular form. At the end of the century, benches became more elaborate, with backs which corresponded to the various chair backs then in use. Bench S3, on exhibition at the Hispanic Society, is of walnut with a gilded metal plaque set in the back which bears the arms of Pedro Alvarez de Acosta, bishop of Osma from 1539 to 1563. As the bench is of seven- Si 263 HISPANIC SOCIETY teenth-century construction, it is probable that the plaque applied to the back was taken from an earlier source. Imbrications further decorate the back and legs. Another walnut bench in the Society's collection (SI) has an arcaded back elaborately carved with acanthus leaves, small ro- settes, and panels with gouged edges. The front legs are reel turned and set in blocks above bulb feet. The bench is reënforced by wooden supports instead of the customary ironwork. A smaller bench (S2), its back carved with floral designs inside of circles, is chestnut and Late seventeenth early eighteenth century probably comes or from the northern part of Spain where that wood was very plentiful. Like some of the peasant chairs in the So- ciety's collection, its back has a line of incised geometric designs along the top. There is a similar bench in the Casa de Sorolla, Madrid. In spite of the great number of cabinets and cupboards of all kinds which were built during the seventeenth century, chests did not go out of use. They were of great importance in country homes where they were usually built of wood carved, like the peasant chairs and benches, with gouges, geometrical patterns in small divisions, and conventional flowers and foliage. The finest examples come from the northwestern provinces and Cataluña. Catalan chests, as mentioned earlier, had certain features which were copied but little by artisans of the other provinces. The lids of these chests were decorated on both sides, and a plain inner lid was supplied as well to protect the contents when the top was thrown back against the wall. Brides* chests, called hembras or fe- male chests, had a concealed door at one side of the front which, when opened, revealed a nest of inner draw- ers built to safeguard trinkets and small possessions. The groom's chest, or macho, on the contrary, had but one large compartment. Many of these carved wooden chests, particularly Asturian examples, were raised upon legs which were continuations of the end stiles. Trunk chests, covered with rich velvets or stamped leather attached with brass nails set in geometric patterns, continued to be popular among the wealthy. These chests were often set upon heavily carved and gilded baroque stands or 264 FURNITURE feet. A trunk chest of this kind (S59) without a stand is exhibited at the His- panic Society. Its metal work is late seventeenth or early eighteenth century in style. The leaf-scrolled angle braces, handle plates, and the hasps of the two large locks are of gilded iron, while the oval lock plates with leaf-scrolled bor- ders are brass. The worn and stained crimson velvet which covers the pine framework is not original. Within the chest is a cerise cloth lining and the re- mains of rose-coloured ribbons. Another chest at the Hispanic Society (357), which is earlier in date, illustrates the excellent and sturdy workmanship with which the simplest pieces of furniture were made. The material is Spanish cedar and it is without ornamentation. The slightly curved top is moulded and the dovetailing of the sides left exposed. The handles, three darts on the lid marking the approximate location of the ring hinges in- side, and the large central lock, in the shape of an escutcheon, are painted red. Inside, near the top on the right, is a small boxlike compartment with a lid upon which geomet- ric designs have been incised. An indispensable piece of furniture in the Spanish household was the brazier, a metal basin which was filled with glowing coals and used for heating purposes. Its fuel consisted of charcoal, in a bed of olive-stone ash, which had been burned for a time out- brazier of-doors and stirred until smoke and danger- 1641 ous gases had disappeared. Manuel de los Herreros, famous dramatist of the nineteenth century, eulogized the brazier in a poem which tells of the con- tentment of drawing close to its blaze on a bitter day, of roasting an apple above it, of eating, drinking, and talking with friends who gather around it. In the poem is mentioned the practice of placing lavender on the fire to sweeten the air when the charcoal smokes. This custom of burning incense was not new, for on September 5th, 1795, the Diario of Madrid advertised perfumed tablets for braziers from Peru and Mexico, the fragrance of which was supposed to last all day. The fire basins, usually round in shape and made of copper, were en- closed or supported by metal, wooden, or porcelain stands decorated in the fashion of the period during which they were made. At the Hispanic Society there is a two-storied seventeenth-century brazier of wood and brass. The lower platform, which holds a basin for warming the feet, is round with a scalloped edge and rests upon turned walnut supports. The upper story, shaped like the one below, but larger, is upheld by fluted and gilded wooden columns. The brass coverings of the platforms are fastened by a great many large nails of the same metal. An inscription around the top reads: zarragoza 1641 conde de robles. On the scallops of both stories in repousse are the arms of Castilla, Castilla and León, Navarra, France, and those of the Robles family charged 265 HISPANIC SOCIETY with a cross. This method of heating, of ancient origin, continues to be used in Spain, where fireplaces are scarce, and is especially popular at Valladolid, Burgos, Zamora, Oviedo, León, and other cities in the north where the win- ters are severe. As soon as colonies were founded in America and the West Indies, house- hold goods were transported for the conquistadores and priests who came from Spain to the new lands in ever increasing numbers. During the six- teenth century, guilds were estab- lished by Spanish colonial artisans whose workmanship copied the clas- sical designs of the mother country. The earliest ordinances of the carpen- ters, sculptors, joiners, and makers of stringed musical instruments issued by the city of Mexico were dated August 30th, 1568. Indian craftsmen were also employed as carpenters, and under their hands the usual Spanish con- tours grew slightly exaggerated and the designs began to show an admixture of native traits. The structural details of furniture built by these men were executed without regard for artistic effect. At first the decorations were very simple, for the earliest pieces of furniture were built to be used by sol- PEDRO MONTES diers and adventurers. Carvings were Choir-stalls from the Monastery of San Francisco, Lima, 1622 bold and vigorous, but after the intro- Peru, duction of the baroque style in the seventeenth century, they became, in many cases, over elaborate, revealing a native taste for ostentatious display with small thought for dignity. Furnishings for the splendid, newly erected cathedrals were the finest examples of the carpenters' and carvers' skill. Three choir- stalls (S62), with an upper and lower range of seats, removed from a loft at the entrance of the church of the Monastery of San Francisco, Lima, Peru, to allow space for Lower range an organ, are on exhibition at the Hispanic Society. The stalls, brought to the United States by Benjamin Chew of Philadelphia, were constructed in 1622 by a lay brother of the convent, 266 FURNITURE Fray Pedro Montes, a gifted woodcarver who followed the traditions of the late Renaissance in Spain. Three figures of Franciscan saints, which are carved in high relief against the square panels above the upper range of seats, repre- sent Saint Louis of Brignoles, bishop of Toulouse, Saint James of the Marches, and Saint Daniel the Martyr. They are separated by pilasters decorated with nude half figures terminating in husks, which are supported upon brackets bearing cherubs' heads, and are surmounted by turned spires. Over each saint is a scallop shell within which a cherub's head has been carved. The cresting above the shells is made up of leaf scrolls. On the scrolled edges of the arm supports nude half figures, ending in husks, and masks are carved. The figures of the saints and the decorations of the framework of the stalls are sculptured with a simplicity which characterized late Ren- aissance work. The panels of the seats, on the contrary, are delicately carved with plat- eresque designs in low relief. The small pan- els at the sides of the lower range of seats display leaf scrolls, fruit in a swag of dra- pery, a stag between trees, one beast pursu- ing another, and a vase with foliage. Gro- Eighteenth century tesque masks decorate the misericords. These stalls are built of cedar and mahog- any which were the most popular woods for Spanish colonial church furniture. The seventeenth-century stalls of the Cathedral of Cuzco and the lower range of seats in the Cathedral of Lima are of similar style but different workman- ship. South American cathedrals of later date contain stalls elaborately carved in the baroque style exhibiting elements of native workmanship in the ex- uberance of their designs. Late seventeenth-century baroque motives persisted in Spain well into the eighteenth century. A universally accepted fashion which continued to be popu- lar was the enrichment of furniture with lacquered decoration. Oriental pat- terns were attempted in brilliant colours, usually red, which was favoured in Andalucía, or white and green, frequently chosen by Catalan artisans. Paint, more economical than lacquer, was used to a large extent, and gilding of excel- lent quality often appeared. Early in the eighteenth century, Spanish cabinetmakers, who built furniture for royal and aristocratic patrons, turned for inspiration to the more graceful styles of other nations. In agreement with the desire for light and informal decorative furniture which originated in France and swept throughout Europe, lines of construction became less rigid, upholstery was more luxurious, and the variety of articles increased. It was an era during which the furnishings of fine Sl2 CHAIR 267 HISPANIC SOCIETY residences were made to harmonize with the architectural treatment of the apartments in which they were placed. Old and new forms are combined in the construction of an eighteenth- century beech and leather armchair (SI2) in the Society's collection. In shape this chair, with its high, rectangular back, recalls Spanish adaptations of the style of Louis the Fourteenth. The leather upholstery is attached to the back and seat with round brass-headed nails, and flowers have been painted over its copper-coloured background on which a simple basket-weave pattern is cut. The lack of skill with which these designs are executed betrays the decline of the Spanish leather worker's art from its exalted position in the sixteenth cen- tury. Decorated leather was discarded almost entirely by other European chair makers during the eighteenth century in favour of rich silks, brocades, and tapestries. The slender legs of the chair are hipped to the seat in an early form of the S22 cabriole, scrolled above pear-shaped feet, and CHAIR are without stretchers. The same lightness appears Eighteenth century in the scrolling of the arms and their supports, upon which stylized leaves and husks are carved. During the first half of the century, wealthy Spaniards brought from France furniture built in the style of Louis the Fifteenth, and from England, Queen Anne and early Georgian examples. In the beginning these articles were copied as exactly as possible, but eventually the Spanish cabinetmaker's love for display and generous proportions led him to produce less faithful imitations. The sturdiness of Queen Anne furniture appealed to the Spanish artisan whose workmanship had always possessed this quality. At this time the popularity of walnut was gradually replaced by that of mahogany which was often carved in the English manner with the raised parts gilded. On all kinds of furniture the curve was a dominant feature in construction and ornamentation, replac- ing the straight line wherever possible. Copies of French furniture were often decorated and strengthened with ormolu mounts, delicately chiseled in rococo motives.The soft and luxurious upholstery was designed with pastoral sub- jects in light shades and woven to fit the dimensions of the curved seats, backs, and arms of chairs and settees. Books of design, published by successful cabinetmakers of France and England, as well as imported models furnished examples upon which Spanish work was based. The new fashion also appeared in the American colonies. From the sola of a Mexican palace came chairs 521 and 522, formerly belonging to a set, which illustrate the adaptation of European design by colonial artisans. That these are early examples may be seen in the height and straightness of the 268 FURNITURE crested backs, the old style, brass-studded, leather upholstery, and the heavy bar and serpentine stretchers joining the legs. Backs of chairs made by French- men, who determined the mode, became lower after the introduction of large, powdered wigs during this century. The lightness of these new chairs and the strength of the outthrust cabriole caused the use of stretchers to be no longer necessary. The crude workmanship of S21 and S22, which neglects the shap- ing of the back legs and allows the joining of the bar stretcher to be visible, has little in common with the extraordinary skill and finish of European cab- inetwork. Carving on the crests of these chairs with its C-scrolls, pendant ornament, and lions rampant has boldness and force but lacks the refinement and precision of the French. The legs, hocked and shouldered with Indian-head masks hung with tassels, laced with ribbon, and supported by a debased form of the claw and ball foot, are without the grace of the true cabriole. It is inter- esting to note that Indian-head masks, which were Renaissance motives, shoulder the cabriole legs of many English, early Georgian chairs. Examples of such masks may be seen on chairs owned by the Viscount of Enfield, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, and a table belonging to the Duke of Devonshire. Claw and ball feet were also popular for English pieces with mask decoration. The kinship of the Mexican palace chairs seems to be closer to the English than to the French, as the effect of their design is one of masculine strength rather than feminine elegance. Modifications of the styles of Louis the Fifteenth and Sixteenth are known in Spain by the names of the Spanish kings under whose patronage they were made. Charles the Third, the first of the Bourbons who came to the Spanish throne from Italy in 1759, was so greatly interested in the cabinetmakers' craft that he soon established royal workshops at Madrid. His first-hand knowl- edge of the recent excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii influenced him to sponsor the classic revival, so that by the reign of Charles the Fourth the straight line of construction had returned and neo-classic designs were supreme. Patterns for upholstery and ornamental mountings were Greek, Roman, or pastoral in character. Many of the light and graceful articles of furniture were gilded or painted with white or pale colours to match the wall decorations. To the surfaces of a number of fine pieces were attached porcelain plaques made at Buen Retiro or Alcora in the fashion of the Sèvres ware of France, which was regarded so highly by Madame Pompadour and Marie Antoinette. Many ex- amples of furniture in the styles of Charles the Third and his successor are still in position in the apartments of the palaces at Madrid, at the Escorial, and at Aranjuez. Although the names of ebanistas to the Spanish Bourbon kings from the time of Charles the Third are recorded, the work of no one of these men was of sufficient originality to give his name to a style as the English cabinetmakers and designers, Chippendale, Adam, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton, whose works, as well as those of the French, were copied in Spain during the second half of the century. Robust interpretations of French and English work are shown in 269 HISPANIC SOCIETY portraits of Spanish royalty and nobility painted by Goya and artists of his time. Early in the nineteenth century Spanish adaptations of French Empire furniture appeared in fashionable residences. In Spain this ponderous, heroic style took its name from Ferdinand the Seventh who came to the throne in 1814. Such furniture was produced in great quantities by the royal workshops at Madrid. Examples in dark wood with symmetrical, gilded metal fittings of Greek, Roman, and Egyptian designs are preserved in the palaces of La Granja, Riofrío, Aranjuez, and El Pardo. With the destruction of the guild system and the advent of inexpensive machine-made furnishings, the demand for individual workmanship lessened, and the master craftsman lost patronage. Spanish furniture continued to re- fleet the designs of other European nations, the traditions of the golden age surviving only in regional work. G. H. B. TEXTILES PRIMIT Spain, reconstructed partly from drawings discovered in caves and paIrVtlyEthrough other archaeological finds, has yielded textiles so frag- mentary that their method of manufacture and their use cannot be determined. The chief cause of such poverty of material for the historian is the climate. Had not the bits of linen unearthed at El Argar, situated in what is now the province of Murcia, been stuck to the metallic surfaces of earrings, bracelets, daggers, VIII and hatchets, they, too, might have been lost to posterity. Another factor in the destruction of textiles was the practice of cremation. The Hispanic Society has in its collection a number of charred linen and cotton fragments dating from the pre-Roman period in Spain. They were found in a cairn at Alcantarilla, not far from Carmona, together with bits of esparto, which had very likely formed the sandals of the dead. Writers, living after the Romans had settled in Spain, seldom failed to refer to the wool trade of that country. It is known that woolen fabrics were exported to Rome during the reign of Augustus. Strabo has written of the numerous vessels sailing from Barcelona and Rosas with woolen cloths, and Pliny the Elder, of wool in the province of Hética. With the Moslem occupation of Spain, a fresh impetus was given to weav- ing. Not only could the conquerors make wool and linen cloths but they taught, first in Andalucía, the art of silk weaving, which had a mushroom growth, so that it was not long before a number of towns became focal points of the trade. By the tenth century, the industry had spread as far north as Zaragoza. While the seat of the caliphate was located successively at Damascus and Bagdad, decorative styles peculiar to these places were copied in Spain. With the establishment of the western branch of the caliphate at Córdoba and its subsequent break with the eastern branch in Mesopotamia, Hispano-Moresque designs which had been taking shape became a standardized repertory of geometric motives, arabesques, and lacería. Supplementing them were inscrip- tions woven into cloths intended for royal robes. A robe thus fashioned was called tiraz, after the name by which the edge of the cloth was designated. The word was applied also to the weaving pavilions which formed part of the royal menage. Of surviving examples of tiraz, the most famous is that called the veil of Hisham the Second. Thought to be the souvenir of some battle, it was dis- covered under the altar of the Church of San Esteban at Gormaz, province of Soria, and transferred to the collections of the Academia de la Historia, Madrid. The technique, as well as the design, shows close analogies with the Fâtimid weaves of Egypt. Probably contemporaneous with the veil is a gold and silk brocade in the cathedral archives at Salamanca. Bands of Kufic inscriptions outline roundels containing pairs of birds, and another inscription is on the body of each bird. Often, inscriptions were mere formulas, indicating neither the period nor the place where the textiles were made. A small fragment (H919), 273 HISPANIC SOCIETY in the Society's collection, has green lettering on a red ground and the colours reversed on the other side. It is said that, when Ferdinand the Saint rode into Sevilla that November day in 1248, he found sixteen thousand looms in operation. His son, the Infante Felipe, shortly named to the archbishopric, was friendly with Muhammad the First of Granada and followed the fashion in wearing silks woven by the pay- nims. Alfonso the Learned, Felipe's brother, succeeding his father four years later, soon had cause to be concerned for his frugal Castilian vassals who, as they made their homes among the vanquished Moors, fell captive to Oriental luxury. In the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragón, James the Conqueror also had his problems in the outburst of spendthrift splendour. Elegant attire was almost obligatory, calling for a variety of fine silks, heavily brocaded satins, and diaphanous fabrics, such as gauze. Almería led all the weaving centres, her fame perpetuated in the writings of authors and travelers of her day. Her looms were arranged in a system of groups, each specializing in one kind of silk or an article of dress to be woven. Silks of the same type, especially those with gold threads of Cyprus, were woven at Palermo, likewise under Moslem rule. Almería traded not only with the rest of the Peninsula but also with the renowned textile centres of Italy. In turn, merchants from that country thronged the ports of Spain to buy, besides the fabulous Almerian silks, fabrics made at Córdoba, Malaga, Baeza, and Toledo. Malagan silks, by the end of the thirteenth century, were as re- nowned as those made at Almería. The Hispano-Moresque textiles now housed in museums and private collections generally came from Span- ish churches where some had been used to cover sacred relics or to bind mediaeval documents or missals. Com- panion to these were larger pieces which formed vestments, as the dal- matic and the cope at Lérida and the chasubles at Caravaca and Burgos. Catalan inventories sometimes list chasubles of Moorish silk in the ward- robes of Christian churches; whether H these were made in the Peninsula or 904 HISPANO-MORESQUE elsewhere, as in Sicily, Byzantium, or GOLD AND SILK BROCADE Thirteenth century Venice, is not always certain. Tombs were another depository of textiles. The custom of using costly silks and gauzes for shrouds was common in Spain as early as the thirteenth century. When the casket of the Infante Don 274 TEXTILES Felipe was opened in 1848, in the parish church of Villalcazar de Sirga, Palència, the mummy was revealed wrapped in a royal mantle, woven of silk and gold thread, with bands of Kufic lettering. The Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid, has this mantle in its collection, together with a cap and a shoe from the same tomb. Other fragments of clothing in such widely scat- tered places as London, Lyons, Venice, Bruges, Vich, Boston, and New York show the material to be gold and silk brocade with designs of rosettes and bands of Kufic letters which appear to compose decorative varia- tions of the term harakfl, blessing. The two pieces of brocade (H904), one large and one small, which are in the Society's collection, are said to be from the casket of Doña Leonor Ruiz de Castro, the second wife of Don Felipe, whose sepulchre is adjacent to his in the Villasirga church. Woven in gold, yellow, red, blue, green, and white, the large section has a pattern of parallel lines dividing alter- nate bands which contain stylized Arabic in- scriptions, diapers of four-lobed medallions, geometric forms of the eight-pointed star, and rosettes within eight-pointed stars. The small piece, woven in gold and blue, has the same design of rosettes. The gold thread was made of thin parchment strips, gilded and H909 HISPANO-MORESQUE then wound on cores of silk thread. GOLD AND SILK BROCADE An important group of Hispano-Moresque Fourteenth century fabrics shows roundels within which are figures seated, facing each other and holding what some suggest to be tambourines. Above them a lamp is suspended. In spite of a few discrepancies in design, the large fourteenth-century gold and silk brocade panel (H909), made of two pieces sewed together, belongs to this class. While the figures within the roundels are seated facing each other, the objects which they hold are not tambourines. There is no lamp in the compo- sition. Other roundels containing addorsed antelopes alternate with the figure roundels. The repetition of circles and antelopes with a suggestion of the tree of life between them reverts to Persia under the influence of Sassanian design. On each side of the wide band of roundels are narrow bands containing ara- besques and Arabic script, these followed by fields ornamented with a close profusion of arabesques, medallions, and interlaced lines. The whole design is in gold, dark blue, green, and white on a ground that has faded from red to a deep, soft rose. 275 HISPANIC SOCIETY A form of linear decoration based on a many-pointed star, often applied to doors and tiles, is seen in the fifteenth-century silk (H918), woven with yellow, red, white, and green threads. It ap- pears in a modified version in another silk (H921), which has a banded deco- ration of geometric forms, trees, eight- pointed stars, and inscriptions in the Granadine style. Certain decorative elements, as the eight-petaled flower, which appears, both in H921 and in a small fragment of silk (H920), woven in yellow, red, and blue, admit of an- other influence besides that of Persia or of Syria. The Antinoë and Achmim silks with lozenges serving as frames for like flowers and for eight-pointed stars suggest that the Copts, as well as the Arabs, left their artistic im- press on the textiles of Spain. Some fifteenth-century rugs might serve as textbooks of the Hispano- Moresque style, with their fields packed with rhomboids and stars and with octagons containing figures, trees, and hispano-moresque silk birds. Script often served as a decora- Probably seventeenth century tivC bordcr arOUnd the field. Of the animal patterns, Thomson has said, "The toy-like character of these elements, and their scattered distribution, suggest to the ordinary mind that the denizens of a Noah's Ark have been turned loose and left upon the carpet." In the col- lection of the Society is a rare fifteenth-century Hispano-Moresque rug (H328), woven with the single-warp knot. The rectangular field bears the blason of Maria of Castilla, repeated five times, each shield placed on a checkered square. The rest of the field contains a diaper of octagons within which are eagles, six- pointed stars, human figures afoot with hands raised, quadrupeds, and crosses. These with other designs combine bar- moniously in several colours, with blue, red, and yellow predominant. Sur- hispano-moresque silk rounding the rectangle are borders Fifteenth century with chain, chevron, and lozenge patterns, and last of all, an incomplete outer border with a recurrent inscription in Kufic lettering on dark blue. 276 TEXTILES H328 HISPANO-MORESQUE RUG Fifteenth century 277 HISPANIC SOCIETY The rug was formerly in the Convent of Sania Isabel de los Reyes, at Toledo, and may have covered the steps of the main altar in the church annexed to the convent. Two fragments of a sixteenth-century rug (H326) show the same diapered field as the rug from Toledo. A fragment from still another rug of the same period (H325) has a simple diaper of six-pointed stars and a border containing arabesques. Not quite of the Hispano-Moresque school, but rather showing lingering traces of it, are the so-called Holbein rugs. Because the artist depicted them so many times on his canvases, his name was given to the group which, however varied the colour schemes might be, always had a patterned plan of octagonal forms on square fields, enclosing eight-pointed stars, palmettes, or geometric motives. But Holbein was not the only painter to represent such rugs. There is in the collection of the Art Institute at Chicago, a fifteenth-century primitive of the Catalan school showing Saint George standing on a rug of similar de- sign. The primitive came from Bañólas, province of Gerona. Of the years after 1500 is the largest of four fragments from a pile rug (H323), showing a bor- dered octagon set on a square, in the centre of which is an eight-pointed star surrounded by palmettes. Gaining in power. Christians from the north advanced steadily south. Spain, after the fall of the Nasrid dynasty, was never entirely without Moorish weavers although the number dwindled. They who had embraced the faith of their con- querors wove textiles in which the combination of Moorish and Christian ele- ments of decoration gave rise to a new term, mudejar, thus distinguishing them from the Hispano-Moresque group. But the colour schemes remained, with the possible exception of white. "In copies of Mudejar textiles which we have seen", observes Miquel y Badia, "there is no white because this was wanting in the fragments which the copying artist had before him. And it is a fact that from some cause, which we can- not now determine, white silk is that which disappears soonest from among the Hispano- Arabic and Mudejar textiles so that by far the greater part of them contain no white at all, or only traces of it." Three mudejar silks in the Society show typical patterns. One (H932), woven in yellow, green, white, and two shades of red, has a field of arabesques and pine cones linked with a variation of the lotus. The main designs in the two other silks (H986, H985) H932 MUDEJAR SILK consist of double-headed eagles holding arrows Detail in their claws and of crowned lions confronted Fifteenth century within enclosing palmettes which unite at their tips to form a floral device. The latter pattern is almost exactly reproduced in a contemporary carpet in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. For, 278 TEXTILES as Spain had copied geometric decoration in the early rugs, so did she adapt _ the textile patterns of later years. Towards the close of the Middle Ages, the new ideas in decoration, which the Mon- golian invasion had given to Persia, inspired afresh the weavers of Spain. Flocks of birds appeared in textiles hitherto devoted almost ex- clusively to floral design. Birds were placed amid lotus vines silk symmetrically within Detail lotus palmcttcs. Lucca, not Fifteenth century Satisfied with her cranes and griffins, even put birds' wings upon her dogs. To this transitional period, Palermo and Almería contributed fabrics, many of which were woven in gold and one other colour. The gold and dark blue silk brocade (H951), which belongs to the fifteenth century and which is probably from _ _ _ _ Almería, shows Chinese and Persian influ- enees. The pattern is a repeat of fountains, with griffins facing each other across the rims, topped by birds, and surrounded by flowers. Eagles, single or double headed, within lotus flowers, were popular in fifteenth-cen- tury textiles. Both patterns appear in the fifteenth-century chasuble (H3911) of yel- low and white silk shot with gold. The cloth has a design of parallel, zigzag bands in alter- nating colours of yellow and white, separated by two narrow, dentated lines of dark green. Detached floral forms, resembling the lotus, outlined in green on the opposite colours, ornament these bands. The pillar orphreys are formed with blocks of alternating orna- ment one of which displays a crowned eagle, varying a little from the conventional form for the eagle of the Sicilies. The body is em- gold and^ilk brocade broidered in black silk and the tongue and Fifteenth century eyes in red silk. Couched gold threads outline the body and feathers, and separated lines of gold couching form the background. Throughout most of the Renaissance period velvet was the first choice for 279 HISPANIC SOCIETY fine furnishings and for costume. Silk, although a favourite, could not equal the other fabric in popularity. The positions of both textiles were reversed in 1343, when a f [ '■ if • decree published by Peter the Fourth of & ■" Aragon gives the earliest known mention of I é ^ ^ «■Bj velvet. This king, who could impose such severe penalties upon his subjects for wearing costly clothes, gathered at Toledo from vari- ous points in his realm a band of mudejares Cut solid velvets which were among the a"»' very first of their class had uses other than shown by certain chests covered with the material and the latter have iron mounts which are backed by pieces of velvet of a corresponding size. More beauti- ful than these and showing less wear are the monochrome fifteenth-century cut voided satin velvets (H906, H935, H962) which have chasuble Gothic designs with single leaf medallions Fifteenth century framing a cone or a pomegranate. To Spanish workshops, familiar already with mudejar and early Gothic forms, were brought Italian velvets, full-blown products of the Renaissance in the land of their origin. The charmed craftsmen made perfect copies, to the future confusion of textile experts. But these same craftsmen, who were artists in their line, soon found copying monotonous and changed to adaptations and then to inspired creations. Thus it was that Spanish velvets soon reached that peak of perfection where they could vie with the Italian. Not wholly renouncing the mudejar style that had reached its full flower when the Casa de Pílalos and the Alcázar were built at Sevilla, the Spaniards turned more to late Gothic and to Renaissance attributes. They took the lobulate leaves which filled the ground of Italian fabrics and com- bined them with the pomegranate in different forms. Where the pomegran- ate was absent, the pineapple or the artichoke appeared, and palmettes de- satin velvet rived from late Gothic leaves. _ • Fifteenth ,. . , 11 1 1 century Brocading with metallic threads was often the sole and suflicient means of enriching the fabric. Frequently, the 280 TEXTILES designs were large, but balance and symmetry gave them a dignity they might otherwise have lacked. Post, speaking 77T of the primitives in Spain, says, "At first thought the notable predilection of mediaeval Spaniards for striking bro- cades and gold backgrounds might seem to violate national sobriety; but the tones of the brocades are seldom vivid, and the actual effect upon the eye, both of the gold and of the large-figured fabrics, is one of sumptuousness rather than of gaudiness". He might have been describ- ing the fifteenth-century cope (H3932), complete with orphreys and hood, which is in the collection of the Society and which is similar to one belonging to the Garland Collection, dispersed in 1924. The brocade has the gold threads both plain and in loops. The floriated pome- granates are of gold within lo- COPE Fifteenth bate borders of century red velvet, woven pile on pile, giving a sheen as of damask. A pattern for brocades, turned out by the hundreds at Toledo and almost always in the classic colours of red and gold, varied at times by yellow and gold, and green and gold, was that of broad, undulating bands with boldly drawn pomegranates and vines in com- bination with branches, leaves, birds, blossoms, and fruits. It was generally used for cut voided cord vel- vets, as in the fifteenth-century piece (H917) and in the small panels (H907, H966, H968). Also of the same weave and the same century are the dalmatic (H3922) and the panel (H3943). The dalmatic is rich looking, with part of the velvet woven pile on pile. Two narrow orphreys of embroidered figures in niches extend the full length of the garment. The colours are red and gold while those of the panel are olive green and dull gold. The design of the latter, which GOLD AND VELVET BROCADE is inverted, has two small oblongs of Detail embroidery, Fifteenth featuring saints, applied to it. Differing from the century others in that the undulating design is delicately rather than boldly rendered is the fifteenth-century chasuble (H3910). The dull 281 HISPANIC SOCIETY crimson velvet of which the vestment is made has brocaded gold pine cones and stems, close leaved and stiffly drawn, parallel- ing a more intricate and graceful design in which leaf scrolls are combined with rich flowers of velvet having gold centres. Several other textiles of the same century, as the gold and red velvet brocade (H949), have varia- tions of the late Gothic undulating design. The technique often included more gold, this not woven flat, but worked in loops, confined at times to the field proper and at other times to the main pattern. When three stages of loops were made, the result was called rizado en ires altos. The magnificent fifteenth-century cope (H3923) in the So- ciety's collection has a pattern of interlaced ogives enclosing pomegranates worked in this manner. Colour is given by ruby red velvet which outlines the design. At the Escorial this class of weaving was carried on in the H3910 workshops belonging to the monastery. Other weaving centres in Spain were familiar r17ir^teentfn caenturymous ^ _ with the technique, but for some reason, it was apparently not known in any other country with the exception of Italy. Other than the velvets having a founda- tion of satin weave were those with woolen threads of which Utrecht made so great a quantity that her name has been given to almost all velvets of this class. They were made into hangings and used for upholster- ing. The pressed bottle-green wool velvet (H947) displays an early coat of arms belong- ing to Charles the Fifth. On each side of the shield are the yoke and arrows of Ferdinand and Isabel. A similar piece in the famous Miquel y Badia Collection is stated to have been part of a sacerdotal dress found in an Andalusian parish church. That the mate- rial was actually used for vestments may be — seen in the chasuble belonging to the Museu cope Episcopal, Vich. The of the pressed Fifteenth pattern century wool velvet which makes up the vestment consists of a series of decorative circles. Ornamentation within panels had a long life in textiles. The shape of the 282 TEXTILES panels varied, also the ornamentation, but the general scheme remained. In the woolen pile rug (H307) a repetition of arti- chokes in conventional form, enclosed by linked ogives which are formed of double lines, deco- rates the field. The entire design is in black on ivory while the colours are reversed in the border. There, white S-scrolls with small birds in the curves are linked on a black ground. The same colour combination distinguishes a larger rug (H311), while the design is another variation of the artichoke within ogival panels. In the spaces between the panels is ornate crocket foliage.The border consists of a floral and leaf design in the Renaissance style. Other rugs (H310, H316) show Renaissance designs touched by Gothic ornament. The main colours in these examples are a golden yellow and blue, gener- ally in two shades. Descendants of the Holbein rugs, those with coronas, ruedas, or láureas, familiarly known as wreath carpets, were made in the same cen- Sixteenth turies as the century Gothic floor coverings. Ten wreaths in two shades of green, enclosing a floral design, are woven into the coral field of the sixteenth-century rug, H301. The corner shields bear the blason of Saint Dominic of Guzmán and presupposes the rug to have been the property of some chapter of the religious order founded by him. There is a rug (H309) of the same century, which has a red field with three dark green wreaths outlined in a lighter shade, containing flo- ral Maltese crosses in the same colours. Bright green ornamental forms, designed like snowflakes, are ranged down the middle and along the side margins of the field. The border is in old blue with yel- low crocket foliage outlined in red. Many rugs and carpets from Asia Minor found their way into the Peninsula during the sixteenth century, furnishing fresh ideas for Detail designs. And the skill of the Span- Late sixteenth century iard in making exact copies was demonstrated anew; not only did he copy the patterns but the technique as well. Two rugs (H304, H312) in the Society's 283 HISPANIC SOCIETY TEXTILES collection are strongly reminiscent of those called Ushak although they were most certainly made in Spain. The fields of both are red and the chief colours are blue, green, and yellow. One rug has a stellate medallion and a field of beautifully drawn arabesques. The arabesques of the other rug are more angular. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries saw ornamental stitchery at its height. Embroid- erers made their homes in the same places as the silk and velvet weavers, especially at Granada, Córdoba, and Toledo, and there were many who became adept at both trades. Never had such glowing colours been pro- duced and, since the general inclination was for ostentation, gold was used without stint. The Crusades which had helped to dissemi- nate Oriental and Byzantine influences had brought to patterns a release from the stiff- ness they had formerly known. Heraldic and religious subjects held full sway. To relieve the severity and plainness of furniture, not only rich brocades and tapestries were used, but coats of arms were also embroidered on velvet panels to cover the backs of chairs and the tops of chests. Similar heraldic devices were set on the central field of reposteros, square pieces of cloth originally serving two purposes, to cover baggage carried by sumpters and to hang in antechambers. When Philip the Second went to Córdoba in 1570 to be near the scene of action in the warfare against the rebellious Moors of the Alpujarras, he was followed a little later by the Duke of Medina Sidonia who included in his train one hundred and three mules with new reposteros of wool and six of purple velvet, embroidered in silver and gold and bearing the arms of the Duke. In the archives of Simancas, among the mass of correspondence written by Iñigo de Cárdenas Zapata, the diplomatist, is a letter dated 1615 in which he deals with the subject of crimson velvet reposteros to be embroidered and decorated with the coat of arms of the princess who later was married to Louis the Thirteenth of France. With the discovery of America, embroidery reached another crest but little remains, due partly to the depredations of war and time and partly to careless- ness and neglect. An idea of the skill of the Spanish embroiderer may be gained from the Hispanic Society's collection which, although not large, is amply representative of this branch of Spanish textile art. Ranging from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century, the embroideries which include apparels and or- phreys illustrate a happy choice of colour and a command of ornamental design. 285 HISPANIC SOCIETY H3912 SAINT JEROME HIGH RELIEF EMBROIDERY Sixteenth century 286 TEXTILES Among them, examples of the process of couching abound, in which the gold, silver, or silk has not been drawn through the fabric but laid on it and secured by stitching. Different effects were produced by the degree to which the ornament was raised and by the stitch employed in securing relief. High relief embroidery, obtained by means of heavy paddings of wool, known in England as Tudor or stump work, is represented in the Society by four square-shaped panels (H3912- H3915), portraying Saints Jerome, Francis, Peter, and Dominic. These probably deco- rated an altar frontal or a cope, as that of the sixteenth century in the Musée Historique des Tissus, Lyons, which is ornamented with or- phreys of similar work also featuring saints. In each panel, a series of gold and silver spangles are so arranged as to give the effect of scales. The backgrounds are made by embroidering spangles on red cut velvet and forming pat- terns in imitation of textile designs of that period. The spangles are convex, an indication of their early manufacture for, in later times, they were made in flat shape. Two types of couching, one light and the other heavy, have been combined on the sixteenth-century dalmatic of black velvet (H3920), making it one of the richest and most striking vestments in the collection of the Society. There are examples of applique where the Sixteenth form has been cut out of fabric and century sewn fast to the ground, the edges being enclosed with stitchery, as in the sixteenth- century manga (H3941) of maroon velvet. The applique consists of a top and a bottom border in guilloche pattern and four embroidered yellow silk columns dividing panels within which are scenes representing Santiago Matamoros, the Annunciation, Saint Michael, and Saint Peter, worked mostly in split stitch. Manga, meaning a sleeve, means also a cloth of cylindrical form, ending in a cone at the top which serves to cover the shaft of a cross when it is carried in procession. It might be plain with only trimmings of braid or it might be elab- orately embroidered; Goya has painted a number of mangas in his genre pictures. Embroidery took a novel turn in the sewing down of gold threads in the grooves made by cut voided velvets. The undulating pattern with leaves and flowers on the green satin velvet of the sixteenth-century dalmatic (H3921) was made in this manner. The dalmatic has apparels of a gold and dark blue velvet 287 HISPANIC SOCIETY brocade with a pomegranate pattern, while narrow braid embroidered in colours, laid from hem to hem in a vertical line, takes the place of orphreys. Among the articles which engaged the embroiderer's needle were banners such as those used in churches or by cofradías to lead their processions. Two sixteenth-century and several seven- teenth-century specimens in the Society are made in an oblong shape, with pointed ends. The earliest examples (H6, H8) form a pair, each with a me- ^ ■ dallion, one depicting Santiago Mala- other the Jj Holy Family. embroidery on both consists of ^ couching in a bold Renaissance ■S^B Church banners often had embellish- ' J ments of lace or braid, as in the seven- " H39'2o teenth-century example (H7) which has DALMATIC braid of gold Sixteenth century i mi ..i and silk with scalloped edges, of later manufacture. The blue vel- vet of this banner has faded to a beautiful subdued peacock blue, called azul verdoso. In the centre of the banner is an oblong medallion of ribbed white silk with silver threads on which are embroidered the five wounds of the Saviour within a five-pointed star. Glass insets, spangles, and purl are used for the rest of the design and for the inscription ave maria pvrisima, the purl being in small pieces of equal length. Instruments of the Passion appeared on many ecclesiastic textiles. In the banner (H9), of the same century as the foregoing, which is of a shade of red verging towards mulberry, the crowned oval medallion in the centre contains the cross, the spear, and the sponge. The embroidery around the me- dallion and along the edges is of raised gold work in couching and satin stitches. Brocatels and damasks rounded out the six- teenth century with two schools of design well represented. One embraced that which interpreted manga the pine motives with circles, large in size at first Sixteenth century but much reduced later and displayed also architectonic forms derived from 288 TEXTILES floral composition. The other concentrated on the lanceolate style which was likewise an interpretation of the pine motives with their Gothic tradition and developments from the Renaissance. Of this class are three chair covers (H969- H971), of red and yellow brocatel. Bro- catel, a stout fabric, made by mixing silk with flax or common thread, was much used for hangings for churches, halls, beds, as well as for upholstering. Serpentine lines of floral motives in- fluenced by the grotesquery of the Ren- aissance had a period of popularity in velvet brocades. Four long strips (H913, H915, H961, H964), probably parts of portieres, in the collection of the Society show this design in two variations. The red velvet is raised on a yellow satin ground, and where it is used as the mere outline H 3921 DALMATIC of a form, the intervening space is closely Sixteenth century packed with small loops of gold thread like clustered rings, which was character- istic of many sixteenth-century Spanish weaves. Appliqué increased in popularity during the seventeenth century, invading all the textile fields, even that of carpets. On the carpet H329, now used as a wall hanging, which is entirely of wool, was applied a design of crowned double headed eagles and urns in diagonal lines. The four corners contain escutcheons. When the carpet was new, the field was a bright red and the decoration chiefly in white with a little green. Finer work characterizes the processional banner (H4) of plum-coloured velvet. The medallion which contains a coat of arms, the inscription, and the leaf scrolls are in shaded yellow and blue silks. White silk heavily ribbed and shot with silver threads is also used, with rolled silver threads forming the outline. The pair of chair covers (HI025), each with an embroidered coat of arms, and the altar hanging (H3969) show different methods of applique. The latter is of PROCESSIONAL BANNER red silk damask in Dated 1599 a pattern taken from a design in embossed leathers, which the Spaniards seemed never weary of repeating. 289 HISPANIC SOCIETY An embossed effect, attained by embroidery in high relief, is seen in a pro- cessional banner (H5) of the seventeenth century. The embroidery, done on old blue velvet in gold couching or laid work on a parchment foundation, consists of a crowned collar of fifteen ovals about a central oval and two more ovals in the tails. Of the same type of work is the altar frontal (H3940). An important edict of the reign of Charles the Fifth, given out in 1537, was the result of an in- creased use of brocades as well as silks and em- broideries. The blame lay with the host of Burgun- dian, Flemish, and German nobles who had accom- panied the King to his new realm from Flanders. Accustomed to indulge their taste for finery to the full, they overlooked the rules concerning dress, and the Spaniards followed suit. By 1552, after petitions from the Cortes, Charles the Fifth set specific limi- tations on the making and wearing of silks, velvets, and satins, and absolutely prohibited the use or manufacture of gold and silver lace and ornaments. Although she had her revenues from the Indies and her own widespread sericulture with many versatile weavers, Spain had perforce to import many of her H961 GOLD AND VELVET BROCADE fine textiles. Aping the ways of a magnificently Detail dressed court, the people could not in any way be Sixteenth century persuaded to thrift but, rather, fell deeper into debt. The departure of Philip the Second for England to wed Mary Tudor in 1554 marked the revival of gold embroidery, for no pains were spared to make his wardrobe and that of his retinue the height of ele- gance. This, with the fact that so much finery was ordered, emboldened the Cortes of Valladolid to pre- sent a fruitless appeal the following year, asking that the edicts be done away with altogether. The re- Detail strictions continued. At Seventeenth century Valencia and other places, the looms stood idle while the weavers tried to obtain 290 TEXTILES Seventeenth century raw silk from Italy and France. Immediately the importation of silk was for- bidden, resulting in an exodus of silk growers and weavers from the Peninsula. All these causes, together with revisions and reapplications of the edicts, failed, however, to check the extravagance prevalent in the realm. When Philip the Third published his historic edict in the year 1600, the regulations he made deal- ing with dress, jewelry, and the use of coaches were of a detailed severity unparalleled in the long years of the monarchy. The reaction to these laws came slowly ; for a while indifference persisted, then a tend- ency against unrestrained splendour became mani- fest. Gradually, the use of gold and silver tissues and of embroideries grew less in civil costume. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the rug-weaving centre of Cuenca began to enjoy a local fame. Although the geographer Idrisi had given it ample notice during the thirteenth century, altar frontal the fine cloths made there were better known than the carpets and rugs. The Society has a seventeenth- century rug (H318) probably made at Cuenca, al- though the provenance might be that of Alcaraz, since the same patterns were used there. On a rich golden field is woven the familiar artichoke design in blues, yellow, ivory, green, and apricot. A line formed by a procession of small birds and conven- tional flowers encloses each artichoke. At both ends is an inscription: orden de santiago . Another seven- teenth-century rug (H305), made at Cuenca, has the armorial bearing of a mem- ber of the Biedma family. The coat of arms is placed on the cross of Alcantara, 291 HISPANIC SOCIETY set in a blue-green panel on an ivory field enclosed by a border containing pal- mettes and stylized flowers. A Don Juan Iñiguez de Biedma was the Keeper of the Keys of the Order of Alcántara at the time that this carpet was made. In 1615, with great pomp, Anne, the sister of Philip the Third, was married to Louis the Thir- teenth of France. The Spaniards who attended the ceremonies were captivated by French fashions, particularly the farthingale. Their interpretation, on their return home, of this round hoop skirt resulted in the guardainfante and a rush of orders for bro- caded fabrics. Not long afterwards, the wrathful Philip gave out a decree, abolishing the garment as vain and useless. About this time damask was at its production peak. It has been said of the heavy red silk damask which was to be found on the walls of all important Spanish churches that it was more than a fabric, it Sevente'enth'century was a Spanish institution. The altar hanging (H3969) previously described, the chasuble (H3930), and the small piece of red damask (H910) are ex- —^— amples of this period. The latter, a green and yellow velvet brocade (H937), and two pieces of a gold and silk brocade (H901, H903) typify the small-patterned fabrics which flooded the textile markets of the seventeenth century. Then the solid floral designs decreased in size and became small forms. A repetition of these forms, either symmetrical or one-sided, on a field gave an effect of powdering. Falke has said, "The normal type of the one-sided patterns consisted of little branches with leaves and blossoms, arranged in rows and turning alternately to the right and the left. The number of such small-patterned stuffs of the 17th century is legion, and they are most effective in the velvet texture, where the design appears in cut pile with uncut contour on a smooth ground, often shot through with metal threads. Their chief charm lies in the beauty and originality of the coloring, which though rarely ever combining more than three different colors, succeeded in producing a multitude of new Details Seventeenth nuances and hitherto unknown combinations". century The seventeenth century was noteworthy also for the importation from India 292 TEXTILES by way of Portugal of light muslins and printed fabrics. As a nucleus of the collec- tion of Indo-Portuguese textiles, the Society has a shawl (H7516), a printed handkerchief (H984), and a palace portiere (H972), all from Goa. The portiere which is of linen is embroidered in silk threads of many colours. A decorative circu- lar medallion in the centre has four trees springing from it, each bear- ing blossoms and having birds among the foliage and animals at the foot. The design includes matching corners and a broad border with carnations and tulips, defined by two narrow floral guards. The handkerchief has large paneled octagons and smaller octagons, these linked by small oblongs and finished by narrow floral borders in brilliant colours. In general, the subjects on the handkerchief, of which there are palace portiere many, are pseudo-Chinese, with Seventeenth century , 111» 11* eagles, dolphins, and chimerae. Indo-Portuguese It was these printed India fabrics, together with Toledo cloths and Roman linens, that sometimes took the place of leather hangings in many Spanish in- teriors during the seventeenth century. In the century following, there arose a new mode in medallion decoration. Instead of embroidery, subjects of religious import were first painted with oils on canvas and then the painting was attached to velvet or silk with braid or stitchery. The painting of the Virgin and Christ Child on a processional banner (H3) of deep ruby red velvet shows the Virgin crowned. Her cloak is blue and her robe, red. Seated on her lap, the Child holds a blue globe in His right hand. With her right hand, the Virgin raises her cloak to shield a kneeling woman to whose left are three persons, also on their knees. One of them is tonsured and clad in the brown habit of the Franciscan order. Above the group are cherubim. The narrow braid outlining the medallion is of false gold thread with a strip of flat gold wire running through the centre. An inscription, partly obliterated, at the foot of the painting refers to one of the most catastrophic earthquakes in the history of the world, that of November 2nd, 1755. Although Lisbon bore the full brunt of the shock, there were tremors felt in parts of southern Spain, particularly Sevilla and Málaga. In gratitude for its preservation, some church may have had the banner made. 293 HISPANIC SOCIETY One type of rug, having not a pile but an area of raised loops of wool, in- tended at first for counterpanes and covers, was made from early times in the Alpujarra mountains near Granada, whence it took its name, and in the outlying districts. Two or more strips were always required for the finished object, as is demonstrated by the Alpujarra rug (H302) in the collection of the Society, which is made in three strips. The field is red with a conven- tional design of flowers and birds in yellow, green, white, and two shades of blue. A floral medallion in the centre is finished by a running border inscribed with a statement that it was made in the year 1766 by Ana Segura. The fringes of Alpujarra rugs were made separately, of wool, in one or more matching colours and were sewn all H302 around the four edges of a rug. Old ALPUJARRA RUG fringes were very wide, showing that Dated 1766 the original purpose of the weave they decorated had been to cover a bed and not a floor. The number of looms which had been kept going in the face of adverse con- ditions steadily diminished. At Sevilla, Toledo, Granada, and Valencia the pat- tern makers allowed baroque elements to disrupt those of the pure Renaissance. The ogive was broken up. On brightly coloured grounds were overlaid birds, vases, and flowers. Later, the diagonal pattern which had been discarded re- appeared. And this time there was considerably more invention in applying the design; the recurring theme of the pomegranate of the sixteenth century was subordinated to others, although designers were still loath to dispense with it altogether. The two pieces of a silk brocade (H930, H950) show the baroque at its best; the pattern is one-sided and curving. A brighter outlook for the silk trade came when the first Bourbon mounted the throne. Determined to restore the prestige of Spain in textile manufactures, Philip the Fifth lent his patronage to several languishing concerns. Valencia started by opening factories where silks from Lyons served as models. Although chinoiserie was then the rage, Valencia began experimenting with flowers larger than standard size and with threads dyed in more exuberant colours. It was in 1748 that Ferdinand the Sixth established the celebrated silk factories at Talavera de la Reina. A temporary lull in florid ornament came with the exea- vation of Pompeii, and Talavera silks showed patterns inspired by that ancient town of Campania. Still another king, Charles the Third, interested himself in the textile ques- 294 TEXTILES tion of the country he ruled. In this case it was Sevilla which enjoyed his patron- age. Under his direction, the number of looms in that city was increased. Nor were the damasks of Toledo and Valericia neglected. Yet, in spite of all the prodding of public interest, the textile centres of Spain never recovered their glory. With the invention of the Jacquard loom, Cataluña took the lead, which it has maintained to this day, in manufacturing machine-made goods in Spain. F. L. M. * • •■'-■■ ' ''-; "^"''' í'V'"}i\^í-^oF'^ ( /•' ^ - ^ vip-^ ■'f^-'ip*fis C' ' i-^ ' 'X--' ' ->'* . ' .;'tí '- , '"i 1. v" V !is-·v'>.v?·..·.' ^': LACES AND EMBROIDERIES Hs935 REDECILLA PANEL Fifteenth century IX PANISH lace had its beginnings not only in passementerie but also in em- broidery stitches and designs which have often been taken to indicate the trend towards lace making in Spain. In a book on embroidery printed at Antwerp by Vorsterman, who is known to have worked there from 1514 to 1542, refer- ence is made to "spanisshe stitche" and actual examples of Spanish patterns are in Le lime de lingerie, published in 1584 by Da Sera. Although a long list of the several varieties of trimming which came under the head of passementerie may be obtained from inventories and sumptuary laws dated as early as the fourteenth century, no description of the technique may be found. It is known, however, that passementerie was made entirely by hand, with threads of gold or silver or of linen. Network, since it was a continuation of work done only by hand, had its affiliations with passementerie. The earliest nets, for hunting and fishing, were destined for rough and constant use, hence the meshes were simple, being noth- ing more than a series of lozenges knotted at all points where the threads crossed. In southern Spain, the two meshes universally made, one square and the other diamond shaped, are called, respectively, redecilla and red de pez. Collectively, they are known as redes or mallas, the latter word being the modern term. Elabo- rations, aside from the embroidering of the pattern, are often introduced, such as double instead of single threads or a combination of the two meshes. The ground was commonly made of white flax thread spun by hand. Sometimes silk or metallic threads were used, not only for the network proper but also for the darning. The designs and not the technique, which remained much the same, are generally to be trusted in fixing the periods when Spanish nets were made. Chief of the geometric designs seen in early Spanish nets is a serrated motive called almenilla, meaning little merlon. This pattern forms part of the wall decoration at the Alhambra. It was popular in Moslem architecture and may be seen to this day in the Mosque of Kalaun at Cairo and the minaret of 299 HISPANIC SOCIETY Marakesh. Among the possessions of Doña Mencía Enríquez de Toledo, duch- ess of Alburquerque, which were recorded after her death in 1479, was a holland chemise with almenillas of gold. In the Arabic tradition is part of the design of the fifteenth-century redecilla panel (H5935), that which shows the trunk of a tree forming a castle and a duplicate castle growing, upside down, from the tree. The main pattern features the pelican in her piety, a subject encountered again and again in Spanish needlework. Other examples of network in the Society's collection, also showing Arabic influence, contain stars, polygons, and arabesques. The stars are eight rayed, in rounded or pointed form, arranged with geo- metric motives. The S-scroll also appears, used as a central figure or as a border. One of the most striking among these is a fragment of redecilla (H6076), probably of the six- teenth century, and probably from Sevilla. Upon the square- meshed net which is of hand- knotted linen threads is em- broidered in cloth stitch a design of arabesques and eight-rayed stars within lozenges. The sides of the lozenges and the rays of FRAGMENT OF REDECILLA the stars contain S-scrolls. Probably sixteenth century The pomegranate, not in the form in which it appears in the arms of Castilla after the conquest of Granada, but derived from an earlier pattern, is a favourite with the Andalusians. Some- times the lotus and the pomegranate were combined. This type of design is to be seen in the network border of an alb (H5934), probably of the early seven- teenth century, in a series of naturalistic sprays. Different work characterizes the fragments of two nineteenth-century flounces (H6050-H605I). In the first, floral forms are darned on a ground of plain net, made by twisting two threads in a hexagonal mesh. The lotus-pomegranate designs are rendered in two ways. One is an open flower with a combined lotus-pomegranate surrounding it; another is a closed flower with some of the seeds of the pomegranate showing and with five petals. The second flounce depicts the design in a series of full- blown flowers with leaves, these done in darning stitch on net. Vase designs, traditionally considered the highest achievement of the lace maker, were derived from the lotus patterns. Several specimens, showing the various styles by which the design could be interpreted, are in the network and bobbin-lace groups. The fragment of a curtain (H6070) has a Renaissance version darned on a ground of small, knotted squares, consisting of a central vase and two side vases, these with fluted rims and single flowers. The work is of the sixteenth century as is the redecilla curtain (H6088) which has a more ambitious pattern repeated four times. The vase stands on a base of two S- scrolls in horizontal form and is complemented by castles, lions, and birds. Cur- 300 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES tains of this type were often hung in doorways during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Among the villages where such a custom prevails is that of Al Horno, province of Huelva, which is noted for its needlework. From the province just mentioned comes the network fragment of a flounce used for an alb (H6055), which is probably of the late sixteenth century. Birds and conven- tional flowers and buds of the H66070 lotus type are darned f on the FRAGMENT OF NETWORK CURTAIN i- 1 Sixteenth century «et. Subordinate to three me- dallions in a row which have birds, in their centres, facing one another. The edge is finished with bobbin lace patterned with double-headed eagles. A type of embroidery, drawn work (deshilado) was the customary decoration of household linens in mediaeval Spain, although it was frequently an accessory of costume or took the form of samplers. A chemise with drawn work at the edge is mentioned in the inventory of Doña Mencía Enríquez de Toledo, second wife of Don Beltrán de la Cueva. The personal effects left by Juana la Loca included a few samplers of drawn work. Juana's infant son, who later became Charles the Fifth, is supposed to have worn the white bonnet which is in the Musée de Cluny, Paris, and which has a series of drawn-work sections combined with embroidery. So fine is the drawn work that it has often been mistaken iox filet. The edicts given out by Philip the Second and Philip the Third to curb extravagant dress forbade any form of decoration in neckwear including that of drawn work. Under this ban may have come such a ruff as that worn by Catalina Micaela, daugh- ter of the first-named king, in the painting at Hampton Court Palace, England. The royal family, however, was often exempted from the restrictions stated in the decrees. There were various methods in Spain of strengthening the isolated strands and filling in with needle and thread the open spaces, left after the threads had been drawn from a cloth, which in brief constituted deshilado. Whipstitch might H6055 be light or heavy as in gusanillo which made NETWORK late cables of sixteenth the threads and rendered work Probably century some well-nigh indestructible. If a pattern was to be in relief, coarse threads were used. When the thread for the darning stitch was as fine as the undrawn portion 301 HISPANIC SOCIETY of the cloth, the finished work was often called retejido (rewoven). Of several stitches, the one most frequently found in the examples in the collection, aside from the usual darning stitch, is a loop ———— stitch (punto espíritu) which forms quatrefoils in the open squares. Some- times the thread was so fine that the quatrefoils were not readily recognized, sometimes so thick that they had a knotty appearance. All these varia- tions are shown in several sixteenth- century examples in the Society's col- lection (H5901-H5902, H5908, H5910, drawn-work band H5916). Buttonhole stitch was a fa- Probably sixteenth century vourite for finishing edges. Colour was sparingly used. Black, blue, and brown with variations of the shade called honey and cinnamon sometimes took the place of white. In Castilla, blue and honey-coloured linen threads are usually found in the drawn work of toallas, a generic term applying not only to towels but also to narrow runners used on tables and walls. Geometric designs came first, combined with the eight-rayed star and S-motive. Although rep- resented in many different forms, with its original meaning long lost sight of, the Egyptian lotus with five petals is still the motive employed more frequently than any other. It appears not only in the laces but also in sculpture and wood- carvings and in ecclesiastic and domestic furni- ture. The lotus designs of two sixteenth-century specimens of drawn work, one a valance (H5916) and the other a border (H5901), are representa- tive. The valance, made of six panels of drawn work in whip and loop stitches, joined by passe- menterie, which also forms the edging to the entire piece, has a lotus pattern designed in a curv- ing band. The drawn-work border has through- out its length a continuous undulating stem, with a lotus springing from it at intervals, first to the left, then to the right, and so on in alter- nation. This type of deshilado was common in Puebla de Guzman, province of Huelva. Curved drawn-work valance branches and human figures in combination with Sixteenth century animals indicate the Renaissance period in valances or the borders of bedspreads. Two characteristic designs, used at Sevilla and claimed to have been trans- 302 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES mitted from that place to the Spanish colonies, were the wheel and the sun. They were made in Spain, at first, by drawing threads from a cloth and overcasting the remaining strands before working in the pat- tern. As a rule, each rueda consisted of a circle framed by multiple rings, with radial brides, the whole within a square. The sixteenth-century fragment of an alb(H5905), containing six squares of drawn work sewed together, shows Andalu- sian work. Each rueda is differently treated, in knot and weaving stitches. These forms were later made independently of the fabric, but so close was their resemblance to deshilado that they were generally classed as such. In Paraguay sim- ilar work is called ñanduti. Cotton, silk, or linen threads are used in making the lacy wheel or sun combinations. The pattern is marked in pencil on a piece of muslin stretched on a square wooden H59OS frame. The doily (H6032), which is typical work FRAGMENT OF ALB WITH RUEDAS of the early twentieth century, is made with Probably sixteenth century strong silk threads, probably from a species of the aloe. Small circles contain- ing wheel and floral designs are joined to a central circle in sun design. In Paraguay, very large circles are rare; the preference is for small pieces which are easily made up into curtains, covers, or shawls. The lace is used also for edgings and trimmings. Cutwork was often introduced into the making of the valance, the purpose being practical rather than artistic; long pieces had a tendency to sag. In the Society is a very fine seventeenth-century example (H6087) made of three panels of drawn work and four of cutwork in buttonhole stitch with a running border and edging of drawn work. It came from the Sierra Morena, Andalucía, H6087 DRAWN-WQRK VALANCE Seventeenth century 303 HISPANIC SOCIETY where a wealth of ornamented linens with time-honoured designs may be found. Drawn work seems to have been almost indispensable for the shirts of men J 'i M f v.*" *' r ^nd the chemises of women in Lagartera, ^ 1 province of Toledo, and for the wedding "K shirts of men in the Sierra Morena. From ¥ Y i the first-named place come the white I v-3'-'* ¿ linen peasant shirt (H7522) and the M '1^^' '® ^ dress T (H7545) which ' ^'· undrawn threads so closely t Í wrapped in cinnamon-coloured linen threads that the white hardly shows. church, one finds the n work gracing altar linens and cuffs and r < Ò ^ V V borders of albs. It is in the household ^ p linens of Spain, however, that the Î. ,'!' ^4 p greater amount of drawn work is to be | found, sometimes forming the sole orna- M,. i" I mentation and sometimes combined DETAIL OF PEASANT SHIRT ^^th embroidery and cutwork (bocadillo). Eighteenth century Drawn work appears also in an im- portant branch of Spanish embroidery, the sampler, variously called abecedario, dechado, and muestrario. The first named refers to those with alphabets and the other two to those with designs and stitches. From the fifty-odd samplers mentioned in the inventory of Juana la Loca, it would seem that the article was already common to the needleworker's repertory in the fifteenth century. The shape of a sampler, while not an infallible guide, often helps in fixing the century in which it was made. As a rule, the oldest samplers are long and narrow while later ones are square in shape. Flat and cross stitches were almost always used; the lat- ter might be plain or reversed. Other stitches were knot, chain, feather, braid, buttonhole, stem, and coral with their variations. The samplers (H6096, H6125, H6131) show in their drawn-work sections the familiar loop | I^B and whipstitches and the usual combina- ^ tions of geometric designs. The needle preceded the bobbin in Span- ■ÉÍIHHIII^^HHIIIÍI^^^^hHI ish lace making. Punto de aguja, embracing sampler punto de España, is the correct term for needle lace. In a decree issued at Valladolid in 1537, Charles the Fifth, confirming the mandates of the Catholic Kings against the use of brocades and gold and silver 304 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES H6125 SAMPLER Early nineteenth century embroidery, remarked that, as a result of the earlier edict, "the embroiderers gave the patterns to the tailors and they, with their wives, made of punto what used to be made of embroidery, at double the cost". His son, Philip the Second, allowed the women to wear punto de aguja on their sleeves. When stockings of such lace were made, he ordered a pair for himself. Two theories are given re- garding the origin, of bobbin lace {punto de bolillos) in Spain. The first is that the Arabs initiated both Andalucía and Sicily into the secrets of the art; the second, that Flanders in the sixteenth century taught Spain the technique in return for lessons in the making of needle lace. Notwithstanding these theories, the fact that Spain sent many ships to the Indies with specified amounts of gold, silk, and linen laces suggests that her lace makers had been plying their needles and bobbins long before these lands were discovered. Even so, there was a great deal of work intended for the personal and domestic use of its makers which never found its way into the markets. For early laces, fashion required that metallic threads be used with an occa- sional addition of coloured silks. In Spain this gold and silver lace attained a popularity which, with the exception of the blondas or silk laces, has never been surpassed by any other kind. The quantity, which never seemed to meet the demand, soon attracted the attention of other countries, and thereeifter Paris and Lyons found Spain, Portugal, and the Spanish Indies good markets for their versions of point d'Espagne, the indiscriminate label for laces of gold and silver threads throughout the seventeenth century. Nor were Flanders and Italy slow to challenge the French exportations with metallic laces of their own mak- ing. Nevertheless, laces of Spanish provenance made at Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, Valencia, and Sevilla flourished, the last-named place continuing the work as late as 1808. Linen thread, however, has long been the common medium for punto de bolillos. The fine flax thread used by the lace makers at Arenys de Mar is imported from Ireland. Spain has its lace-making centres. The provinces of Andalucía, especially those of Huelva, Sevilla, and Cádiz, make laces with distinctive variations in design and technique, having traditional names for many of these, which are not equivalent to the dictionary definitions. Most of the laces which comprise the Society's collection were gathered in these regions, among them specimens which have the ladrillitos design, found not only in bobbin laces but also in 305 HISPANIC SOCIETY drawn work and knitting. The customary interpretation of this motive, a dia- mond surrounded by other diamonds, is to be seen in the bobbin lace inser- tion (H5962), probably of the sixteenth century. In Andalucía there is a lace called punlo de doce bolillos (twelve-bobbin lace), a name applied alike to work made with twelve or sixteen bobbins. Sometimes this lace lacks a ground. Where a ground is present, it often resembles the six- pointed star mesh of point de Paris. This particular mesh occurs more as a filling than as a ground in Sevillian bobbin lace. The lotus design is frequently used in twelve-bobbin lace. The flower in certain early specimens has an archaic form which makes it difficult to identify. It evolved to a combination with the pomegranate, the petals of the one and the leaves of the other ingeniously intermixed. The naturalistic flower appears in eighteenth-century work. Designs in lace, as in textiles, were subject to change. There were, however, several which persisted in spite of the alterations in decoration, and of these the best known is that now called the Russian lace pattern. It was traced in a long, undulating line, at times doubled upon itself but meandering in a repetition of curves to the end. This serpentine or vermiculated design which appears in some laces of Brabant as well as in those of Milan has been called the "contin- uous braid" design. The bobbin lace edging (H6015) is a good seventeenth- century example from the province of Cádiz. Somewhat on the general idea of the Russian lace pattern is that called the algarabía (confused) design in laces H5945-H5954. The plan is said to have been derived from the pavements in certain hamlets of Andalucía, such as Cantillana, province of Sevilla. Instead of a precise, geometric arrangement the paving stones are laid in a haphazard pattern and are copied in the laces in a series of erratic curved lines. A lace which ranks in importance with the twelve-bobbin lace is that called redaño. At a casual glance, it looks very much like netting; in England it was designated as caul lace. The lotus design was also a favourite in redaño. From a solitary flower, it changed into what Petrie calls the lotus tree, an echo of the Persian horn, tree of life, with birds and sometimes animals on either side. As in twelve-bobbin lace, the lotus- pomegranate combination is fre- quently used. Vase designs, de- veloping into floral designs which are later changed into single, scattered blossoms similar to those of eighteenth-century Mech- lin laces are shown in a number of bobbin laces in the H6006 Society's BOBBIN LACE EDGING collection. Seventeenth century Most beautiful of the redaños is the seventeenth-century border of an alb (H6000), the ground of which re- sembles that of a fish net. The design consists of flowers and scattered blossoms. 306 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES A lace, said to be from Almagro and similar to the specimen in the Hispanic Society, is in the collection of the Rhode Island School of Design, Providence. In certain parts of Andalucía, notably in the provinces of Huelva and Sevilla, punto de aguja has long been designated as lace, the composition of which requires a wooden, forked pin {horquilla) and a fine steel hook called either gancho or aguja. By means of the forked pin a knotted braid was made, that of early times H6000 being very BOBBIN LACE BORDER OF ALB fine with a purled edge. The aguja, Seventeenth century now represented by the common crochet hook, was then employed to work the braid into the completed form. Pillow-made braid and machine-made tape were also used. There were lace makers in Andalucía, during the first years of the twentieth century, who were especially skilled in the use of the horquilla, but the punto de aguja just described is seldom found. Work which came under that name forms part of the border of a mantilla (H5924) which is in the collection of the Society. It was discovered in the hands of the vender's children who were playing "horse" with the torn remains of the mantilla. The designs are traditional in the families which make the different classes of work, and a sharp distinction is drawn between the old designs and the new patterns for crochet, derived from books and fashion papers, although the workers find it difficult to explain any differ- ence between the present-day method of working the punto de aguja and de gancho and what they call punto de crochet. It seems probable that the modern crochet, which is brought to great perfection in southern Spain, is an offspring of the antique punto de aguja and de gancho. Examples H5926- H5928 show patterns made by the hook {gancho) with tape or braid. Work related to that just described, of a chain-stitch nature, is called MANTILLA BORDER WITH ENLARGEMENT OF cadena and cadeneta. In late cadeneta of PUNTO DE AGUJA the best class, such elaborations are Eighteenth century introduced that certain stitches can be made only by two persons working to- gether, one on each side of an upright bastidor, and using between them four 307 HISPANIC SOCIETY needles at once. In the Society's collection are seven specimens, so classified. One, a fragment of an alb (H5922), was formerly in the Jesuit College of Puerto de Santa Maria, province of Cádiz. Here, the whole pat- tern is worked in chain stitch on bobbin net. Two designs, repeated alternately, consist of a scrolled cartouche with a tiara and two crossed keys, another of a cross springing from a group of conventional flowers above the monogram JHS. A lotus bud is on each side of the monogram. Of the H5922 late like fragment of C..A..D..E.N..E.JA eighteenth century , ,. , 111 Late eighteenth century the preceding and probably from the same place is a frag- ment of an altar frontal (H5921). The sheer muslin of which the altar frontal was made has a design characterized by a bold lattice, worked on it in chain stitch. Cadena, in Andalucía, also signifies the cloth stitch used in some bobbin laces for the solid parts of the design. Also having only a local significance were designs such as the "tears of Saint Anthony", which were popular in the province of Sevilla. As shown in the ex- amples of bobbin lace (H5955-H5960), the lace maker might use a realistic teardrop for a model or she might make a garland of small squares or decorative motives and leave the rest to imagination. During the Bourbon rule, Spanish laces copied the Binche and the Mechlin, combining loose with compact meshes and employing a cordonnet. Jerez de la Frontera seems to have had a monopoly on the manufacture. Owing to the fineness of the threads with which these laces were made, few examples now exist in good condition. Laces of this type have seldom been found in the other provinces. In the nine pieces (H5979-H5987) which, with one exception, lack a ground, the manner of working the design points to a Flemish prototype, but the lotus and pomegranate patterns are essentially Span- ish. Another group of five pieces (H5988-H5992), hav- hsqsp ing grounds and floral designs bobbin lace edging . I ^ii. Ç -, II Probably early eighteenth century with hllings or snowball rorms, was probably made after 1750 in the neighbourhood of Jerez de la Frontera. Lace making was so extensive in Cataluña during the late eighteenth cen- tury that travelers of that time were able to fill their books with descriptive 308 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES paragraphs about the industry. This included the making of silk lace or blonda, so "'I l·in'' from the tint of the a term litfjULLI PJq tffJJi'Jim- • ivory thread, which was retained even after black and other I ^ IíjK colours were used. i There were two kinds of having grounds and patterns : made on the pillow and another having only ' the bobbin net grounds which were later em- il broidered and might then be classified with ¿ordodos. The W majority of the blondes had that hexagonal shape, sometimes called the "six-pointed star" mesh characterizing point Cataluña and the Manchegan town of MIyf * ytyf fw \ ! Almagro in Castilla have always been considered the leading centres of the silk lace industry, black blondes of Almagro are distinguished ju^yiyL^M by the blue-black colour of the silk. Several examples of silk lace in the collection, which i came from Andalucía, would seem to give this H6036 province the right to rank its work with that FRAGMENT OF BLONDE of the tWO Probably late seventeenth century 1 places men- tioned. While they are few in number, they give a fair idea of the technique and designs practiced in southern Spain. A preponderance of the ladrillitos pattern is to be noted in the work from Cádiz. That from Sevilla ranges in decoration from the rococo to the jarro (vase) and from the ogee curve to a floral form, more or less resembling a rose. The churrigueresco style shows two different interpretations in H6036 and H6047. A hint of the ever-popular blonde flounce five-leaved lotus occurs in the scallops of the «'g^teenth century silk bobbin lace edging (H6038). Among the silk laces are sev- eral mantillas, in rectangular and triangular shapes, and a black silk mantilla (H6110) in the classic shape called cazuela, consisting of an oval centrepiece finished with a flounce, the whole in a floral BLONDE EEXiiNG pattern. All were made by hand, in Middle of eighteenth century afterWards joined wlth an invisible stitch. Orders for mantillas like these are received occasionally by 309 HISPANIC SOCIETY lace makers in the little towns of Arbós del Panades, province of Tarragona, and blonde mantilla to the women Probably late eighteenth century Qf the tOWn and the adjacent Arenys de Munt and paying for their work. The three examples of bobbin lace edg- ings (H6253-H6255), as well as several others in smaller widths, came from their stock in trade. Almagro in Castilla is still occupied as in the time of Don Quixote with the manufacture of silk and linen laces, of which the Society has several examples, one (H6049) a late seventeenth-century blonde edging. Pillows for lace making vary in size and shape. A btobein iace edgings long, cylindrical, or oblong pillow is used at Almagro, Twentieth century in Cataluña, in Galicia, and in certain parts of Andalucía. One end is placed on the knees and the other end is propped on a solid support. The two lace pil- lows (H6132-H6133) are the type of the ready-made article sold in the shops at Barcelona. Pillows mounted on tripods were used principally in convents or com- mercial establishments. On the covering of denim or durable cloth is fixed a strip of parchment, H6110 oilcloth, or paper with the pattern blonde mantilla Another Nineteenth century pillow. • » 1 1 • 1 í common in Andalucía, is shaped like a muff. The bobbins are usually small and slender and of boxwood finely 310 LACES AND EMBROIDERIES turned. Those which belong to the hand-carved class were, in many instances, gifts to the lace maker from her betrothed. To-day, save for a few special workshops scattered throughout Spain, the Spanish lace maker concentrates on the torchon laces, simply designed, which are shipped in quantities to South America and to Cuba. The centres of the industry remain where they were in other days, at Almagro, at Novelda in Valencia, in Cataluña, and in Galicia, along the coast of Finisterre. F. L. M. \ MANUSCRIPT MAPS JOAN MARTINES Chart I After 1560 X To Catalan and Italian chart makers have been attributed most of the early cartographical records which are contained in the collection of the Hispanic Society. These portolano-charts, thirty-two in number, dating from the early fifteenth to the late seventeenth century are works of artistic and scientific interest. They may be described as the graphic presentation of the periplus, or book of sailing directions, which was used by the mariner of the ancient world to guide him on his coasting voyages. The periplus set forth the appearance of towns, capes, and promontories as observed from the sea, but ships could be sure of their position only while they remained near the coast. With the aid of the portolano-charts, however, vessels could sail a course out of sight of land. These charts were based upon estimated bearings and distances between prin- cipal ports or capes. Portolano-charts are said to have made their first appearance between the thirteenth and the fourteenth century, at the time of the development of com- mercial activities in the coastal cities of Europe. According to Nordenskibld, they are the most complete cartograpKh2ic0al works of the Middle Ages. Gen- erally drawn on parchment, the charts were executed either on single sheets, in which case the entire skin was frequently used, or on a number of sheets bound together to form an atlas. Black, red, green, yellow, blue, gold, emd silver were the colours used in the designing of the charts. Place names which are numerous were usually inscribed in black, but special importance seems at one time to have been attached to the places indicated in red. These names 315 HISPANIC SOCIETY are, with few exceptions, the same on charts of Catalan and Italian origin. The Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of Europe are described on the single sheets which include in the east the Black Sea and in the south a part of the Red Sea and the north coast of Africa. In the atlases, the Mediterranean is divided into three sections, and the Black Sea and the Atlantic coastal regions constitute several charts. Addi- tional sheets include as a general rule a world chart, one or two maps for the African coast, one for the British Isles, _íícj one for the Baltic Sea, and one or more GIOVANNI BATTISTA CAVALLINI for the southern Asiatic coasts. Chart Intended chiefly for the use of sea- 1637 men, it is interesting to note that in these earlier charts geographical features are almost entirely lacking in the in- terior regions. Gradually, details appeared on the inland regions, and we find in the later charts that rivers and mountains are represented, important cities are made prominent by means of pictures, and countries and states are distinguish- able by names and ornamented coats of arms. A conspicuous feature of these manuscript maps is the network of fine lines with which they are crossed. Usually thirty-two in number, they radiate from crossing points systematically distributed over the chart. Drawn in black, green, and red, these lines do not represent latitude and longitude but were evidently intended to show the prevailing winds. The figures which ornament the crossing points are called wind or compass roses and are quite frequently of very elaborate design. Some of the charts are adorned with castles, tents, flags, and banners, as well as representations of the Virgin and Child. The oldest portolano-chart (K4) in the col- lection of the Hispanic Society is attributed to Giacomo Giroldi and dates from the early fifteenth century. It bears marked resemblance to Giroldi's atlas of 1426; place names are almost identical, and the features of the interior regions are strik- ingly similar. Little colour has been used and com- pass roses as well as miniature representations of DOMENICO cities VIGLIAROLO are entirely lacking. An important chart Chart III of Catalan type is that of Petrus Roselli (K35) ca. 1590 dated 1468. Roselli, member of a famous school of Majorcan cartographers and a pupil of Battista Becarrio of Genoa, is said to have obtained much of his infor- 316 MANUSCRIPT MAPS mation from charts of the previous century. Doctor Edward L. Stevenson, in his book, Portolan charts, says regarding this chart, "It is especially interesting to find that there are numerous features resembling the Catalan chart of 1375." The colours are well preserved and it is very elaborately decorated with pictorial details. The Society's collection also contains what appears to be the only extant example of the work of Nicolaus de Nicolo. The map (K6) is well drawn and is inscribed with the legend, "Nicolaus de Nicolo M.cccclxx". Representative of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are the works in the collection by Maggiolo, Freducci, Agnese, Girava, Martines, Vigliarolo, Prunes, Volcius, Visconte, Calviro, Cavallini, and Bockler, many of which con- tain author legends and dates. Vesconte de Maggiolo is the author of a portolano- map (K33) dated 1312. Both this chart and the one by Nicolo are said to have been in the possession of Count Pietro Gradenigo of Venice in 1882. The name of Baldassáre di Maggiolo, perhaps the last descendant of the famous Maggiolo family of Genoa, especially distinguished as chart makers in the sixteenth cen- tury, appears with that of Giovanni Antonio de Visconte on a chart of 1605 (K12). A portolano (K13) belonging to the early part of the sixteenth century has been ascribed to Battista Agnese. It consists of fourteen charts. Because of his skill as a draftsman and miniaturist, Agnese held a very important place among the Italian chart makers of his time. The Society's collection also includes works attributed to Bartolomeo, Jaume, and Joannes Olives, members of a well-known Majorcan family. Those drawn by Jaume and Bartolomeo are in- PETRUS ROSELLI Chart 1468 317 HISPANIC SOCIETY Detail of World Map 1526 JAUME OLIVES Cheirt 1566 318 MANUSCRIPT MAPS scribed with the authors* names and dates. A chart (K41) by Jaume dated 1566, which appears to have been his last work, is considered one of the finest in the collection. Although little is known of the cartographic accomplishments of Juan Vespucci, nephew of the famous Amerigo, a map (K42) in the collection of the Society, which appears to be his only manuscript work extant, places Juan among the distinguished map-makers of the Sevillian School. This map of the world, drawn on parchment, is signed and dated at Sevilla in 1526 and is em- blazoned with the royal arms of Spain. A. P. ¿ír-'.ÍáL^te¿^»i.'^®<-; -.-' ' ^ /- -^'íy,' t'V"^,.- —Íï**' "v'^ ' ,' , , ''vT'^ ^ >' >^"1 . . V ^^h' ."'" '*■'4 '■>Mí. V". V .' •■^-+^ - ^ *♦*!»*• •>. ^ 4. <^«*^1 *í "rfí ;t "?"'f '- » ) <ï\jíSl| ■& j-i -j ^, PRINTS Spain, as in other European countries, the first known examples of IN printed illustrations are xylographs or woodcuts. It is recorded that this method of block printing was used as early as the thirteenth century for the transfer of de- signs to textiles. The luxury of wearing printed textiles was prohibited by James the First of Aragon in 1234. Xylography was also adopted for the production of playing cards, the use of which became so popular during the fourteenth century that they were forbidden by the statutes of the Caballería de la Banda, a military XI order founded about 1331 by Alfonso the Eleventh of León and Castilla, and by an ordinance issued in 1387 by John the First of Castilla. In the opinion of Mossèn Josep Gudiol i Cunill, the late curator of the Museum at Vich, it would be but natural for printing to pass from textiles to paper "thereby originating the print. It is most likely that the first manifestation of engraving on paper was the religious image". Inventories reported by him in Bibliofilm (Barcelona, 1911-20) prove the existence of such devotional prints in 1403. To the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries belongs the Biblia pauperum, a simplified rendition of the Bible, illustrated with block prints for the aid of the uneducated clergy of those days. The fifteenth-century copy in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid has the text in manuscript. Probably the first dated appearance of xylographs in books printed in Spain after the discovery of movable type was in 1480 when Bartolomé Segura and Alfonso del Puerto issued at Sevilla the Hispanic impression of Werner Rolewinck's Fasciculus iemporum, illustrated, however, with prints copied from German cuts used in an earlier Venetian edition. The Hispanic Society has a copy of the Sevilla pub- lication. This type of engraving in relief is represented in the Society's collection of prints by 590 reim- pressions of the xylographie printing of the house of Guasp, a printing firm at Mallorca, reputedly the oldest dynasty of publishers in Europe which has continued without interruption from 1579 to this day. The senior establishment of the Plantins at Antwerp, although founded in 1576, ceased busi- ness in the eighteenth century. The xylographs in the collection form but a small part of the 1,440 examples that have been reprinted from the old Guasp wood blocks. Made at various periods from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries and possi- bly in the nineteenth, they not only were printed but many, also, were engraved by members of the Guasp family (QS5000). 323 HISPANIC SOCIETY It is woodcuts like these, mainly religious in theme, which gave rise many years later to the aleluyas, or broadsides, with their series of illustrated panels. This method of depicting an event or a story by a sequence of pictures might well have had its source of inspiration in the early retablos in which the lives of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints are represented in a series of painted panels. While it is said that the printing of aleluyas began in the eighteenth century with those issued in celebration of royal weddings and births, public festivals and the like, it is generally conceded that lottery sheets mark the beginning of these aleluyas. The Society's collection has a varied set, in wood and metal engraving, of eighteenth and nineteenth-century broadsides. The subjects are historical, religious, military, educational, and humorous, the last probably being forerunners of the comic strips in the newspapers of to-day. In aleluya QS5670 are shown the festivities during a royal visit. Among the curious prints to be seen in the collection is a large woodcut of La Quaresma (QS5708), an allegory of Lent. The woman with her basket of fish has seven feet, representing the seven weeks of fasting. It seems that at Bar- celona it was the custom to cut off one foot on each Sunday and, at the end of the forty-day pe- riod, to celebrate the event by burning the print. The use of engraving on wood for the illus- tration of books waned after its inception in the fifteenth century. In the nineteenth century in- terest in this medium for illustrative purposes was revived with special emphasis on wood en- gravings as distinguished from woodcuts. The periodical. Semanario pintoresco español, appear- LA QUARESMA ing in 1836, was the first of the periodicals illus- trated with wood engravings that flooded the country. The Society's set of this publication shows the first crude stage of Spanish wood engraving which gradually improved until it reached the delicate skill of Bernardo Rico in the last issues of 1857. The founder of the periodical, Ramón de Mesonero Romanos, enlisted Leonardo Alenza for drawings of Madrid scenes. It was when faced with the difliculty of finding wood engravers who could do justice to the drawings that Mesonero persuaded Alenza to take up the study of the process. But the artist, instead, formed a group of men who became proficient in that art, the first being Vicente Castelló, a painter who was to be- come better known for his new medium. Castelló's work, though of little merit according to present-day standards, was excellent for the period in which it ap- peared. His signature is to be seen in practically all the illustrated publications issued during the middle nineteenth century. He founded and published the periodical. El Siglo pintoresco (1845-48), engraving the illustrations himself. Aware of his defects in wood engraving, he taught his pupils how to avoid them 324 PRINTS QSsóvo ALELUYA Visit of Charles the Fourth and Maria Luisa at Barcelona. 1802 Woodcut 325 HISPANIC SOCIETY with such success that he was able to claim credit for the product of some of the best wood engravers of the century. In company with Félix Batanero, he made the plates for the 1841^5 edition of the Ohras of Quevedo, the drawings for which were supplied by Alenza, Lameyer, Urrabieta, Zarza, and many others. Resentful of the preference shown in their country for French wood en- gravers, a group of Spanish artists formed a society and issued in 1840 and 1844 special editions of Gil Bias and El diablo cajuela with illustrations, drawn and engraved on wood by members of the society, in which they claimed to depict more correctly than their foreign rivals the costumes and customs of their country. Copies of these two books are in the library of the Hispanic Society. In the prints collection is a little bound album of forty-six wood engravings by Calixto Ortega, with a manuscript dedication to the Duke of Osuna. Pre- sented by the artist in 1841 as an expression of gratitude to the Duke for his patronage, it gives an idea of the work the engraver had done. Examples of Ortega's engravings are frequently to be seen in the illustrated novels and peri- odicals of the first half of the nineteenth century. Among the many other engravers of the century whose works are repre- sented in the Society's collection are José Castilla, José Severini, Tomás Capuz, and Bernardo Rico. Together with Castelló and Ortega, they collaborated in the illustration of periodicals now rare: El Panorama (1838-41), Fr. Gerundia (1837-44), Las Españoles pintados par si mismas (1843-44), and El Museo universal (1858-69) which became the well-known La Ilustración española y americana (1869-1917). These professional engravers sometimes turned artist and made original drawings for their own engravings. Bernardo Rico y Ortega studied the art of the wood block under Castelló and Ortega. As an art director of La Ilustración española y americana, he con- tinned engraving up to the time of his death in 1894. The prints collection has a fine proof of a wood-engraved portrait of the painter, Juan Antonio Ribera y Fernández (QS5640), which seems to have been made for Ossorio's Galeria biográfica de artistas españoles del siglo XIX (Madrid, 1883-84). Signed in the book as drawn by Perea and engraved by Rico, it is not possible to tell whether the engraving came from Bernardo's burin or that of his younger brother, Martin. However, as it was only during his youthful years that Martin helped his brother prepare illustrations for the publishing house of Gaspar y Roig, it is more than likely that Bernardo was the engraver. With the advent in the late fifteenth century of engravings printed from metal plates began the de- velopment of a new field of art in Spain. Known and unknown artists supplied the country with engravings of widely varied subjects such as playing cards, 326 PRINTS devotional prints, and later, title-pages and illustrations for books. While foreign artists in Spain were preferred for their more finished work, there are extant early engravings of such undeniable Spanish origin as to make it evident that Spanish engravers were working in that medium in the fifteenth century. In proof of this. Angel Maria de Barcia mentioned six engravings in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid. He believed two of them, prints of allegorical subjects, to have been made before 1454 as they were found mounted on a manuscript of that date, the writing of which extended over the margin of one of the prints. They may be considered as contemporary with the niello prints of the Florentine, Maso Finiguerra, the earliest of which is dated 1452. Besides an engraving of the Virgin and Child with Saint John, ascribed by Barcia to the period of 1460-80, is the more familiar portrait of the Prince of Viana, assigned to 1461, the date of the Prince's death. The remaining two of the six prints described by Barcia are devotional and are unusual in that they are signed and dated, the engraver being a Valencian, Fray Francisco Domènech, about whom little information is to be found. Bearing the date of 1488, the first engraving is a representation of Saint Anthony Abbot, and the second, a beautiful piece of engraving printed on paper of a later period, is known as the Virgin of the Rosary in which, with the Christ Child, she is surrounded by saints and scenes from the life of Christ. The original metal plate of this engraving was acquired in 1858 by the Royal Library at Brussels. Copper-plate engraving of title-pages and illustrations for books reached its greatest output in the late sixteenth century and continued throughout the seventeenth. Diego, the earliest engraver listed by Cean Bermúdez, executed in 1548 a title-page for the 1585 edition of Gerónimo de Zurita's Anales de Aragon. Some original engravings of this period may be seen in the early printed books of the Society's collection. An anonymous engraver made fifty-three plates, many of them printed on both sides of the paper, for the Society's copy of Antonio Agustin's Diálogos de medallas inscriciones, published in 1587 at Tarra- gona. Pedro Angelo of Toledo was the author of the plates for the Historia de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe by Gabriel de Talavera which appeared at Toledo in 1597. Also by Angelo are the engravings in Pedro Salazar de Mendoza's work. Chronica de el cardenal Don Juan Tauera (Toledo, 1603). To him are attributed the excellent illustrations in Salazar's Crónica de el gran cardenal de España, Don Pedro Gonçalez de Mendoga (Toledo, 1625). Interesting as a distinct group are the painter-etchers, professional painters who turned their hand to etching either through a desire to attempt this form of artistic expression, to make known their paintings, or for the production of book illustrations. It seems natural that this method should have been used in preference to line engraving as etching has been called the medium of the colourists, due to the facility with which the needle may be used on the grounded plate and to the toning made possible through the use of acid baths. Among the earliest of the painter-etchers is the tempestuous painter of Sevilla, Francisco de Herrera, the Elder, whose work may be seen on the title-pages of Constitu- 327 HISPANIC SOCIETY dones del arçohispado de Seuilla (Sevilla, 1609) and Luque Fajardo's Relación de la fiesta...en Sevilla a la beatificación del glorioso S. Ignacio (Sevilla, 1610), both of which are in the Society's library. José de Ribera, who is said to belong to Spain as a painter and to Italy as an etcher, is one of three Spanish artists (the others being Goya and Fortuny) who are perhaps the only engravers to be universally known for their work in this field. His twenty-six etchings are considered as the high lights of the seventeenth-century period of Spanish engraving. So valued were they that Rembrandt, the contemporary of Ribera, treasured a set in his private collection. Attributed to leading artists are some unsigned proofs of etchings preserved in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid, among which should be mentioned those believed to be the work of Velazquez, Alonso Cano, Murillo, and Claudio Coello. From the hand of Juan de Valdés Leal are a signed self-portrait, also in the Na- tional Library, and four plates of the Sevilla custodia by Juan de Arfe, for which Valdés was paid the sum of 2,500 reales by the Cathedral chapter. In the Society's collection are two etchings made by Valdés Leal for the 1671 edition of Fernando de la Torre Farfan's Fiestas de la S. Iglesia...de Sevilla. These etchings, made on three separate plates and printed on two sheets of paper, are signed and dated 1671 and 1672, respectively. They show the elaborate monument erected within the cathedral in honour of Saint Ferdinand (QS1675) and the great door of the cathedral decorated for the occasion (QS1674). Valdés Leal taught the art of the etching needle to his son Lucas so that at a tender age the young artist etched four plates for Torre Farfan's book, signing them, Lucas Baldes fecit de edad de 11 años. Yet another one of Valdés's children. Doña Luisa de Morales who adopted her mother's name, etched three com- mendable plates for the book. Contemporary with Valdés Leal are the painters Francisco de Herrera, the Younger, and Matías de Arteaga y Alfaro, both of whom contributed etchings to Torre Farfan's account of the festival in honour of Saint Ferdi- nand. Barcia thought Herrera's single contribution, a portrait of the youth- ful Charles the Second, was probably the work of Arteaga. Seven etchings by Arteaga in the prints collection are from Torre Farfan's publication of 1671. 328 PRINTS - ELVÍCUE.51A. cQVŒ^'A^ÊACPADAÎA ENTRENTE CEL T RI VNfD.. .fi QS1674 VALDES LEAL Etching 329 HISPANIC SOCIETY They consist of exterior and interior views of the cathedral, a plan, and a view of the graceful Giralda tower (QS62), decorated with banners. An interior shows the artist Murillo at work on one of the many paintings he prepared for the festive occasion. While Barcia maintained that the seventeenth and eighteenth-century engravings of paint- ings of Saint Ferdinand by Murillo and other artists were of no value, still the etching made by Arteaga for the book is of interest in that it is, perhaps, the earliest etched re- production of a work by Murillo. Most versatile and revolutionary of all the Spanish painter-etchers was Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes whose fame in Europe as an etcher and lithographer, oddly enough, preceded his renown as a painter. Three early ventures, begun in 1770, of re- ligious subjects were followed in 1778 by his copies of Velazquez' paintings, the only work he ever did that was not original. Even then, his strong individuality gave fresh vigour to ARTEAGA the etchings which in some cases departed Etching from the original in details such as back- ground, costume, and facial expression. In the Society's collection of prints are seven of the sixteen etchings that Goya made of the Velazquez paintings. They include, besides a third-state etch- ing of The Drinkers (QS533), second states of the equestrian portraits of Baltasar Carlos, Philip the Third and Philip the Fourth, Margaret of Austria, Isabel of Bourbon, and the Count-Duke of Olivares. To this period belong Garroied and Blind Guitarist, original work done in the early style of multiple short lines. The peak of Goya's career as an etcher was reached in the famous series of eighty etchings called Los Caprichos. In these satirical plates Goya employed to the full the aquatinting he had tried out in one or two of the Velazquez copies. Bold and original in conception, the lines are more interestingly drawn than in his previous work. Goya worked on the plates from 1793 to 1798, soon after he had lost his hearing during a serious illness. About 1797 he issued a prospectus in which he described the plates as a set of seventy-two, completed, but with no prints as yet made from them. Newspaper advertisements in February 1799, however, finally announced as ready for sale the sets of eighty etchings each, which, with the self-portrait by Goya as the first plate (QS540), were later to become so well known. The Caprichos created so much excitement that Goya, as a precautionary measure, presented the eighty copper plates together with 240 unsold copies to Charles the Fourth. Whether it was to escape the ire of certain people who took 330 PRINTS GOYA Etching after Velazquez as personal affronts several of the etchings or to avoid a clash with the Inqui- sition is not known. However, as Goya said in the letter of presentation, addressed to the Secretary of the Treasury, Miguel Cayetano Soler, and dated July 7th, 1803, "The foreigners are those who most desire them and for fear lest they should fall into their hands after my death, 1 desire to present them to the King my Lord for his engraving plant (calcograjid)" From the eighty plates deposited with the Calcografía Nacional came nine other editions (ca. 1850-1918) besides the first of 1799 which was the only one made under the supervision of Goya. In the Society's collection are two copies of this first edition and one each of the fourth, 1877-78, and the fifth, 1881-86. In the identi- OSs40 GOYA fication of the editions, it has seemed advis- Etching and aquatint able to abide by the findings of the Spanish experts of Goya's printed work, such as Félix Boix, Pedro Vindel, hijo, and 331 HISPANIC SOCIETY Miguel Velasco Aguirre, all of whom had direct access to the records at Madrid. The 1799 edition shows the etchings at their best with the aquatinting still fresh. Two of the plates, numbers 32 and 39 (QS578), are pure aquatints with no trace of etching. In chronological order come the more than eighty plates of the Desastres de la Guerra on which Goya worked from 1810 to 1820. The first plate. Tristes presentimientos de lo que ha de acontecer (QS860), is a graphic introduction to the series, showing as it does the haggard figure of a man on his knees with his hands hopelessly outstretched. In the etchings are depicted the harrowing scenes Goya is said to have witnessed at Madrid and Zaragoza during the French invasion, the War of Independence, and the terrible famine of 1811-12. Goya assembled several complete sets of proofs for his friends, one of whom, Ceán Bermúdez, assisted him by revising the titles. Three of these sets and groups of proofs are the only prints extant made by or under the personal direction of the artist, as no regular edition of the etchings was issued during his lifetime. Vindel reports five editions of the Desastres, the first appearing in 1863, all of which were published by the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando from the eighty copper plates acquired by the Academy after the death of Goya's son, Javier, the owner. The Acad- emy also had engraved on the plates the terse titles copied from those given on the proofs. This led to several orthograph- ical errors in the 1863 issue which were corrected while the edition of 500 was still in the press. Consequently some copies of this first edition con- tain errors lacking in the second and final part of the same edition. The Society has Etching and aquatint a copy of the second part with all the corrections. The horror and mystery of these etchings are enhanced in some of the plates by the use of aquatinting and dry point. Little caricaturing 332 PRINTS is evident except in the last fifteen of the eighty plates which, satirical in char- acter, are analogous to the Caprichos. The subject chosen by Goya for his next series of etchings was the national sport of bullfighting. In the plates of La Tauromaquia the artist showed an inti- mate knowledge of the art of bullfighting, as well he might, having, as he told his friend Moratin, fought bulls in his time and, with the sword in his hand, feared none. These plates, perhaps the most artistic of all his etchings, give incidents in the history of the sport, once that of the nobles, from the time of the Moors and the Cid Campeador to Charles the Fifth in the sixteenth century and to the bullfighters Rendón (QS967) and Pepe-Illo in Coya's own time. Worked out in etching and aquatint with, at times, touches of dry point, thirty-three numbered plates with an index supplying the titles to the bullfight scenes were printed under Coya's supervision about 1815. This date is engraved on two of the plates; advertisements also help to fix the period, the issues of the Diario de Madrid and Gaceta de Madrid for October 28th and December 31st, 1816, having offered the series for sale, singly or in sets of thirty-three etchings each. The same plates were printed for a second edition by the Calcografía de la Im- prenia Nacional at Madrid in 1855. On the cover was printed the Caprichos por- trait of Coya and on the back, the index. At this time the copper plates van- ished to reappear some twenty years later in the possession of a French pub- lisher, E. Loizelet, who printed at Paris an edition of forty etchings from the same thirty-three plates. This is explained by the fact that on the versos of seven of the plates were etchings probably rejected by the artist. Lettered from A to C in the series, only two are variations of the regular thirty-three. For this edition Loizelet etched a special title-page with a portrait of Coya in a three-cornered hat. The plates disappeared again, to be found later in a Pari- sian bookshop by the artist, Ricardo de los Ríos, who had a limited edition printed at Madrid about 1905, possibly by Perezaguas, using the Coya portrait of the title-page and the forty etchings of the Loizelet edition. The copper plates were finally purchased by Francisco Esteve Botey who presented them to the Círculo de Bellas Aries at Madrid. The fifth and last edition was printed by the Círculo in 1921. In the Hispanic Society's collection are four copies of the Tauromaquia, two 333 HISPANIC SOCIETY of which are of the first 1815 edition. The third copy is of the second (1855) edition, and the fourth belongs to the fourth (Loizelet) edition of 1876. Described by Beruete as the most personal and most extraordinary work by Goya, the etchings of Los Proverbios voyaged further into the realm of pure fantasy than those of Los Caprichos. Entirely incomprehensible, the inner meaning of the plates has yet to be satisfactorily explained. One can only do as Melida says and admire the etchings as one would admire in a painting the movement of a running figure without knowing the reason for the flight. The period of the etchings has been assigned to 1819-20 when Goya was recuper- ating after a nearly fatal illness from which he was rescued by his friend. Doctor Arrieta. The etchings of Los Proverbios lack the delicacy of line evident in the Caprichos. The strong, ruthless impetuosity of the lines reveals, it has been suggested, that the artist did not allow the needle to hinder the swift trans- ference of his fevered thoughts to the plate. Twenty-two large etchings were made for the series, of which but eighteen were published by the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in the seven edi- tions they issued, beginning with that of 1864. The copper plates were acquired by the Academy, as in the case of the Desastres de la Guerra, after the death of Javier Goya. The last four of the twenty-two plates were completed at Bordeaux and, found in the studio of the artist Eugenio Lucas, were printed in 1877 by the French periodical L'Art. The plates, purchased in 1907 by Edmond Sagot, Pari- sian print dealer, were inherited by his daughter Madame Maurice Le Garree. No edition of the Proverbios was issued during Goya's time. However, proofs with notes by the artist exist to support the contention that the correct title of the series is Disparates (perhaps best rendered into English as "Absurdities" or "Fantasies") and not Proverbios as was decided upon by the Academy. According to Mélida and Beruete, there is nothing whatever in the subject matter of the etchings to connect it with proverbs, Spanish or otherwise. In the prints collection of the Society is a copy of the first edition of 1864, sewn together with the original green paper cover and with a lithographic title-page, also one of the third edition of 1891. Plate 10 (QS1088) of the series is here reproduced. Among the single etchings by Goya is El Embozado (The Muffled Mart) also known as Viejo Torero. The surly figure of a man in an enveloping cape which, however, does not conceal his face, might well be that of a bandit, as the barrel of a blunderbuss is to be seen at his side. Behind him, etched in dry point, is a bull. Made in the same period as the two etchings of the Maja, possibly 1807 or 1808, the copper plate of this etching is one of several, perhaps seven in all, acquired at Madrid 334 PRINTS in 1859 by an English collector, John Savile Lumley (Lord Savile), who made prints from them, using heavy paper. This, the nearest to a regular edition, is the only printing known. What has become of the plates since then is not told; proofs from two of these plates and the Lumley prints are all that remain, and these, according to Beruete, are sought more for their rarity than for their beauty. Of the Embozado there are perhaps nine etchings in existence, including the one in the collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art and also that in the Hispanic Society (QSlllÇ), neither of which is mentioned by Loys Delteil. Also in the Society's collection is a third state of the etching. Ciego Cantor, which through the courtesy of the owner of the copper plate, Edmond Gosselin, is included in Delteil's cata- logue of the etched work of Goya. Developed in etching and aquatint, it shows a man seated upon a rock, singing and playing on his guitar. It belongs to the same period as the Embozado. All these etchings, together with such iso- lated examples as Head of Bacchus, bookplate of Jovellanos, two landscapes (originally etched on the reverse of two copper plates which later were cut into four and used for Desastres de la Guerra), Dios se lo pague a Vd., two prisoner scenes not in the Lumley set. El Coloso, and inedited plates of the Caprichos (2), Des- astres (2), and Tauromaquia (4), constitute the entire etched work known to be by Goya or credited to him. Coeval and next in point of interest to the incom- parable Goya among the painter-etchers of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are the brothers Isidro and Antonio Carnicero. While the Gar- niceros, Antonio in particular, made many paintings, they did an even greater number of drawings for en- gravings. These covered a wide scope of subjects such as architectural sketches for new buildings, the ever popular scenes of Don Quixote, for which the Society has the original sketches made for the three editions of 1780, 1782, and 1787 issued by the Real Academia Es- GOYA pañola, costumes for the Colección de trajes de España Etching and aquatint engraved and published by Juan de la Cruz Cano y From Delteil. Le peintre gratem Olmedilla in 1777, and portraits of the oftenrpictured illusiré...Goya, Paris, 1922 family of Charles the Fourth, engraved by Juan Bautista Brunetti in 1802-03. In the library of the Hispanic Society are copies of these illustrated editions of 335 HISPANIC SOCIETY Don Quixote; the prints collection has the Juan de la Cruz set of costume plates and four engravings from the series of nine or ten portraits of the royal family. The Carnicero brothers engraved their own draw- ings as well. In the prints collection is an album en- titled, Colección de las prin- cipales suertes de una cor- rida de toros. Dihuxada y grabada por Dn. Antonio Carnicero.Madrid,Añol790 (QS104), a series of twelve bullfight scenes, which shortly after their appear- ance were widely copied by Spanish and foreign art- ists. Isidro Carnicero en- graved in 1784 a unique plate (QS151) showing a fantastic scene of a bullfight taking place in the air by means of balloons. The etchings for which the artists, Juan Calvez and Fernando Brambila, are especially distinguished are the thirty-six aquatints known as the Ruinas de Zaragoza. The artists visited Zara- goza at the end of the siege of 1808 and 1809 and, making sketches of the ruins, heroes, and heroines of the siege, etched a set of them in aquatint at Cádiz in 1814. The prints collection has the second edition, published in 1925 by the Marquis of Rubí, which contains six of the plates made for the Ruinas (QS500) and two by Brambila showing a view of Toledo and an interior scene of an Aztec ceremony. It is possible that the last-mentioned plate was etched by Brambila from draw- ings he made while with Alessandro Malaspina on the round-the-world scien- tifie cruise of the Atrevida and Descu- bierta in 1789-94. Mariano Fortuny y Marsal of the nineteenth century is probably the best ISIDRO CARNICERO Engraving beloved of the Spanish engravers. Ac- cording to his son, he etched between 1861 and 1874 thirty-four copper plates of which Beraldi lists but twenty-nine. There are only two complete sets of the 336 PRINTS prints extant, one in the British Museum and the other in the Musco de Arte Moderno at Madrid. It is not without justification that Théophile Gautier con- sidered Fortuny to be the equal of Goya as an etcher and to ap- proach Rembrandt. From the hesitant and ex- ploring needles of Leonardo Alenza, Eugenio Lucas, and Daniel Urrabieta Vierge came several rare etchings. Alenza was a painter who is better known for his amusing drawings of Madrid life. They differ from Goya's sketches in that they lack the bitter satire present in his work. Alenza's few experiments GALVEZ and BRAMBILA in etching did not exceed nine or Aquatint ten plates. The Society has two which were printed for the first time in 1865 in the short-lived Spanish periodi- cal. El Arte en España. One is a balcony scene and the other (QS57) shows a group of beggars sunning and delousing themselves in the shelter of a wall. While Alenza's etchings did not attain any great merit, his untimely death at the age of thirty-seven is believed by Barcia to have interrupted the possible development of a great master of the needle. Lucas is known to have made only one etching, of which a proof, signed and dated 1864, exists in the collection of the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid. This portrait of a begger, long attributed to Goya, made its initial appearance in the Reme de l'art ancien et moderne (1901, v. 10) and was repeated in Paul Lafond's biography of Goya (Paris, [1902]). The copper plate for this etching belongs to the painter, Ignacio Zuloaga, who presented the two proofs (QS1200) in the Society's collection. Also in the collection is an etching, Manolas, which is the only one known to have come from Zuloaga's needle. The etchings of Daniel Vierge are of special interest when one considers the difficult condition under which he produced them. Paralyzed at the age of twenty- nine, he courageously taught his left hand the skill of his right and, in time, was able to continue with the illustration of books. It was then that he took up the 337 HISPANIC SOCIETY etching needle with such success that, though few in number, several of his plates are as spirited as his drawings. The Society's collection of books about Vierge and those illustrated by him include a number of ' I ' his . original etchings. K ^ Though little known outside of Spain, there are many " fe reputable Spanish etchers and engravers of whom it is possible to mention only a few. Chief among the en- 1^/ gravers of the eighteenth century is Manuel Salvador ' • Carmona, court engraver to both Charles the Third of Spain and Louis the Fifteenth of France. A prolific and temperamental artist, he did much to bring Spanish en- graving out of the slough into which it had fallen. By QS1200 turns, he was a hack engraver and an inspired artist. LUCAS He turned out scores of plates for Etching title-pages, letters patent, coats of arms, plans, topographical maps, and devotional prints of saints to such an extent that the Spanish diplomat and art patron, José Nicolas de Azara, complained, speaking of Carmona's engagement in the engraving of "santitos y planos". At other times Carmona was creating engravings of high perfection, calling forth the enthusiastic praise of Azara. Most of them were reproductions of paintings by other artists, especially by his father-in-law, Anton Raphael Mengs. His engraving of the Mengs portrait of Charles the Third in armour (QS1561) so delighted the King that he bestowed upon Carmona the title of grabador de cámara. This engraving is in the collection of the Society as is also his meritorious Real Picadero (QS1562), en- graved after a drawing by Antonio Carnicero, which shows the family of Charles the Fourth in the riding academy. Carmona took a leading part in the en- graving of the 114 portraits in the Retra- tos de los españoles ilustres, published by the Imprenta Real at Madrid in 1791, of which there are two copies in the So- ciety's collection. When Carmona was not doing the actual engraving of the por- traits, he was finishing the plates of the other artists who contributed to this T. • . . .. series. It is interesting to notu ^ MANUEL SALVADOR e that CARMONA ® some - • hngraving arr,ter *M*engs of these ^ engravers were former pupils of his, being Fernando Selma, Bias Ametller, Esteban Boix, Luis Fernández Noseret, Manuel Alegre, José Gómez de Navia, and his own brother, Juan Antonio. 338 PRINTS Juan Antonio Salvador Carmona, also a grabador de cámara, is represented in the collection by more than fifty en- gravings, thirty-one of them comprising a series of scenes from the lives of saints, engraved about 1750 after drawings by Antonio Gonzalez Velazquez, and thir- teen depicting Christ and his disciples. The library has Juan Antonio's en- graved work in various books, such as Sallustius' La conjuración de Catalina, translated by the gifted son of Charles the Third, the Infante Don Gabriel, and published in 1772. Fernando Selma, a collaborator in the Retratos, joined the two Carmonas and other artists in engraving the large plates in the prints collection, made from drawings by Domingo de Aguirre for the two-volume Palacio Real de Aranjuez (1773-75). Manuel Carmona MANUEL SALVADOR CARMONA and Selma also after Antonio Carnicero engraved the maps in Engraving the Soci- ety's copy of Atlas marítimo de España (Madrid, 1789). Although Selma did but seven of the twenty-nine maps, he devoted many years to this kind of work. He is said to have replied, when re- proached for neglecting the finer art of engraving portraits and reproductions of paintings, that it satisfied him more to be of use to those who sail the ocean deep than to please the frivolous with elegant prints. Selma was much praised for his reproductions of paintings by Goya, Titian, Murillo, and others. The copy of Pedro Le Moyne's Galeria de mugeres fuertes (Madrid, 1794) in the Society's library contains a frontispiece portrait engraved by Selma after a Goya drawing of Doña María Josefa Pimentel, Condesa-Duquesa de Benavente, wife of the Duke of Osuna. This seems to be the only record of a work by Goya showing the Duchess wearing a turban; the one SELMA painting known, that in the Bauer Collection at Engraving after Goya From Le Madrid, depicts her in a brimmed hat. Moyne Galería de mugeres fuertes In common with other engravers of his time, 339 HISPANIC SOCIETY Selma engraved illustrations for the editions of Don Quixote and for López de Sedano's Parnaso español (Madrid, 1768-82) which may be seen in the library. Mention of Spanish provincial costumes seems inseparable from the name of Juan de la Cruz Cano y Olmedilla, His Colección de trajes de España, tanto antiguos como modernos, a series of engraved plates appearing between 1777 and 1788, supposedly issued in eight folios of twelve plates each, is the earliest known collection of provincial costumes to have been published in Spain. It is doubtful whether any complete set exists; the Society has two copies, one of which, containing eighty plates, is said to be the most nearly complete set extant. The plates were engraved by the au- thor after his own drawings and those of several other artists, among them Antonio Carnicero, Luis Paret, and a nephew, Manuel de la Cruz, one of whose work (QS188) is here shown. Also in the collection is a copy Engra;ing after Manuel de la Cruz ^hc anonymOUS cdition which WaS plagiarized from the Juan de la Cruz publication and sold secretly in France and Germany with the names of the artists and engravers suppressed. Juan de la Cruz was also a geographer to the king. His skill as a cartographer may be seen in the four maps by him in the Atlas marítimo de España (Madrid, 1789). The library also has a London copy, made in 1799, of his large map of America meridional engraved in 1775. Manuel de Godoy, minister to Charles the Fourth and surnamed the Prince of Peace, cited in his memoirs as artistic achievements accomplished under his patronage the Caprichos of Goya and the views of the royal monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial. In the collection are eleven of the twelve large plates be- longing to this series of views which, printed about 1800, were drawn by José Gómez de Navia and engraved on copper by Manuel Alegre and Tomás López Enguídanos. Two interesting plates in the collection depict the spectacular funeral given at Madrid on May 2nd, 1814, to the heroes of the French invasion of 1808, Luis Daoiz and Pedro Velarde, by their comrades in the royal artillery. They were engraved by the Catalan, Bias Ametller, and Rafael Esteve (QS368) of Valencia after drawings by José Rivelles. Ametller and Esteve contributed engraved por- 340 PRINTS Engraving after Riyelles traits to the Retratos de los españoles ilustres and to Kalendario manual y Guia de forasteros de Madrid, the latter an annual publication which, with portraits of the reigning king and queen, first appeared in 1722 and continued, with changes in title, until its termination with the issue of 1930. It was Esteve who shared with Manuel Salvador Carmona the distinction of having been painted by Goya. A careful and meticulous engraver, Esteve was the last of the few good engravers in Spain before the advent of José María Calvan and Bartolomé Maura. José María Calvan y Candela was a member of a society of artists and par- ticipated in an album of etchings entitled El Grabador al agua fuerte which was published by the society to encourage this medium of artistic expression. Evi- dently issued in three volumes, they are dated 1874, 1875, and 1876. The His- panic Society has the complete set of forty-eight plates of each of the first and second volumes and thirty-one of the probable thirty-six belonging to the third. The etchings in the album series consist of the original work of nine engravers as well as their reproductions of paintings by Spanish artists. Calvan made twenty-six plates for this series, among them ten aquatint reproductions (QS478) of the Coya frescoes in the Church of San Antonio de la Florida at Madrid. They were so well liked that Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado asked Calvan to make a new and more complete set of the frescoes for a separate publication. 341 HISPANIC SOCIETY As a result, Calvan etched in aquatint twenty-seven views and details on sixteen plates, and they were published at Madrid in 1888 with an introduction by Pedro de Madrazo, The library has the second edition of 1897. A collaborator in El Grabador al aguafuerte was Bartolomé Maura y Montaner, one of a gifted Mallorcan family of ten children which included besides himself a rector, a writer, a painter, and, in Antonio, a noted statesman. Never having studied art at Paris, Rome, or else- where, Bartolomé Maura may well be described as a pure Spanish product. Making his appear- ance at a time when photo-engraving was be- ginning to enter the field of illustration so long occupied by metal and wood engraving, he was a fiery opponent of the mechanical form. His work in engraving showed such early excellence that, when he timidly approached the master Carlos de Haes for advice on a QS478 GALVAN plate he had completed after Velazquez' The Detail of Goya fresco Maids of Honour, the older man exclaimed Etching that "he who engraved the plate should be my master". Maura was an indefatigable worker; more than a hundred original portrait engravings of famous people of Spain came from his burin. The prints collection has, besides other portraits, one engraved by Maura of his brother Antonio, which bears a dedication by Antonio to the president of the Hispanic Society. In the thirty-three plates made for El Grabador al agua fuerte, Bartolomé Maura wielded the needle with such virtuosity as to give the etch- ings the effect of colour. They include the reproduction of a little-known drawing by Fortuny (QS1260) of a priest writing a letter for two women. The Society's collection has postage stamps engraved by Maura, the 1901 -05 and 1909-17 series of Alfonso the Thirteenth, the 1905 Don Quixote Commem- orative issue with twelve scenes from the story of the valiant knight, and the 1905-28 special-delivery issue depicting Pegasus in flight. Spain was not slow in exploiting lithography once its possibilities were dis- closed. Discovered in 1795 by Senefelder and employed in Germany for indus- trial purposes and for the reproduction of music only, it was not fully developed as an art until 1815 when Engelmann founded at his native town of Mulhouse in Alsace the first lithographic establishment in France. Better known is the shop which Engelmann established at Paris in 1816. Lithography in Spain was practiced as a pastime long before it became a serious art. Carlos de Gimbernat, a Catalan scientist in Bavaria on an important mission, studied the new medium in Senefelder's shop at Munich. While there 342 PRINTS he published in 1807 for the benefit of a visiting troop of Spanish soldiers, un- familiar with the country and the language, a Manual del soldado español en Alemania with a lithographic map by Senefelder, which inaugurated the use of the process for the making of maps. The book, reissued in Spain the next year, is said to be the first book pub- lished in the Spanish language to con- tain a lithograph. Another enthusi- ast, a Mallorcan artist with as varied interests as Gimbernat, Bartolomé Sureda, became interested at the time of his stay at Paris in 1811 and made four small lithographs which are the earliest prints extant signed by a Spaniard. The original lithographic press in Spain was established under the patron- age of the Dirección de Hidrografía early in 1819 by José María Cardano who had been studying the OS1260 process at MAURA Munich. About this time Goya, at the Etching after Fortuny ripe age of seventy-three, made his initial essays in lithography. His Old Woman Spinning, dated Madrid Febrero 1819, is the first print in the incunabula of Spanish lithography to have the place and date imprinted on it. Félix Boix believed that while Goya's lithographs do not indicate where they were printed, it undoubtedly was in Cardano's shop as no other press existed at that time in Spain. He advanced as tangible proof the friendship which existed between the two, exemplified in the letter written by Goya in 1825 to José María Ferrer at Paris, in which he asked that a litho- graph of his be shown to "amigo Cardano". It is interesting to note that two lithographs, in the collection of prints and drawings by Goya in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid, were printed on the backs of other lithographs by Cardano, probably made at an earlier period. The prints collection of The New York Public Library has a lithograph by Goya, Espresiio doble fuerza, which bears, on the reverse side, part of another with the stamp of Impr. Litogr. de Cardano. As the early lithographs by Goya were purely experimental and not for publication, there are few to be seen to-day. Among the ten which were sup- posed to have been made at Madrid in the years 1819 to 1824, before Goya's voluntary exile to Bordeaux, is a Bull attac\ed by Dogs. Two etchings (plates 25 and C) in the Tauromaquia series, begun in 1815, are variations of the same subject and render more likely the attribution of the lithograph to the Madrid period of Goya's lithography. The Hispanic Society has this lithograph, from the Carmena y Millán Collection (QS7069), of which, according to Loys Delteil, 343 HISPANIC SOCIETY QS7069 GOYA Lithograph there are only three in existence. The rest of the twenty-three known lithographs were made at Bordeaux, including the famous series of four, the Bulls ofBordeaux, which were the only copies printed for sale. Whether or not credence is to be given to Matheron's account of Goya's method in treating the lithographic stone as though it were a canvas propped upon an easel, it must be admitted that the lithographs exhibit the astonishing freedom of line pointed out by Beruete. He states that no comparison between the artist's etchings and lithographs is possible for, in taking up the new medium, Goya completely changed his technique. Lithographs hold an intermediate place, being neither drawings nor en- gravings in the exact sense of the word. As qualified by Beruete, an original lithograph should be regarded as an original drawing, having been drawn freely upon the stone with no thought of the next step to follow. Bartolomé Maura, who preferred metal engravings to wood engravings and lithographs, admitted that a good lithograph is a true work of art, a personal creation. Other painters known to have availed themselves of the opportunity to practice the new art in Cardemo's shop are José Ribelles y Helip and Vicente López y Portaña. Cardano continued to direct his press until 1822 when he departed from Spain on a foreign commission, leaving his brother Felipe, a land- 344 PRINTS scape painter and engraver, in charge of the press until its suppression in 1825. At Barcelona a lithographic press was . ■ . . - started in 1819 by Antoni Brusi who, the following year, enlisted the aid of Engelmann in the setting up of a more ''imF completely equipped plant. The estab- p -V 'j, lishment of a rival press by Antoni Mon- fort in 1825 broke the five-year ^ ^ monop- ■( oly held by the Brusi firm in the Cata- Ian city. About 1822 the Establecimiento Lito- gráfico del Depósito General de la Guerra was set up under the directorship of José Ribelles y Palomar. Its existence was brief, for soon after the removal of the court and the Depósito de la Guerra from was accused of a political crime for IHHHHHHHHHHBHHH which he was removed from office. \ . Though he was cleared of the charge CAMARON against him, he did not resume his office Lithograph after Murillo and the press seems not to have con- From Colección Ulitthhooggrráphica de cuadros, v. tinned. March 21st, 1825, is the date of the privilege granted by Ferdinand the Seventh to his court painter, José de Madrazo, giving him permission to repro- duce by lithography the paintings in the royal palaces and governmental build- ings. This was the begin- ning of the Real Establee i- miento Litogràfica at Madrid which, after Madrazo had returned from France with equipment, lithographers, and other workers, began to function in 1826. The Hispanic Society has a copy of the Colección lithogrâ- phica de cuadros del rey de España, an ambitious pub- lication issued in three QF7074 large volumes from 1826 to „ „ ASSELINEAU Brambila 1832. This which was Lithograph after work, never finished, contains 192 superb lithographs by more than thirty Spanish and French lithographers. After a year, when eight portfolios had been published, and despite extensive 345 HISPANIC SOCIETY official advertising, the subscription to the publication had not increased, Madrazo obtained another grant from the King, dated March 18th, 1827, whereby all possible competition in Spain was suppressed for ten years. His establishment was to have a mo- nopoly of the publication of all litho- graphic drawings with the exception of manuscripts and music. The Real Establecimiento published a set of eighty-eight lithographs known as Colección de las vistas de los sitios reales y...de Madrid (1832-33) which is as monumental as the first publica- tion. The volume in the Society's col- lection bears on the flyleaf the auto- graph of José de Madrazo. The repro- duction (QF7074) is an interesting view of a wash-day scene on the river Manzanares at Madrid and is by the French lithographer, Asselineau. FEDERICO DE MADRAZO Despite much opposition, the royal Lithograph privilege of 1827 continued in force From El Arlisla. v. I. p. 36 until the death of Ferdinand, after which the ruling queen, Maria Cristina de Borbón, by an act of March 13th, 1834, freed from restriction the establishment of rival lithographic plants in Spain and reduced Madrazo's privilege to the repro- duction of paintings in royal palaces and official in- stitutes. This restriction, however, did not prevent Madrazo from printing the lithographs for El Artista, an art publication edited by his son, Federico, and Eugenio de Ochoa. Although short-lived, having been issued in but three volumes for the years 1835 and 1836, it is unique in being the first publication to contain orig- inal lithographs that were not copied from paintings. Not only did the youthful Federico de Madrazo make the romantic lithographs for the review, he also exe- cuted for it a series of portraits, remarkable for their ex- cellence. Of them Félix Boix, in a summary of Spanish lithography, says, "Among these lithographs, carefully FEDERICO DE MADRAZO D. José de Madrazo printed at the Real Establecimiento, which deserve Lithograph special mention are several portraits of contemporaries, From El Artista, v. 2, p. 300 such as the Duke of Rivas, García Gutiérrez, and others, credited to Federico de Madrazo, who combined with a great precision of drawing a feeling for colourwhich 346 PRINTS made them comparable to the contemporaneous lithographs by Achille Devéria". The set of El Artista at the Hispanic Society contains eighty-two original lithographs among which are nineteen, rabidly romantic in character, by Carlos Luis de Ribera who, with several other artists, French and Spanish, collaborated in the illustration of the periodical. In the prints collection is also a lithograph portrait by Federico de Madrazo of the actor, Julian Romea, done in 1842 for the Gaceta de Teatros. It was printed at Madrid in the estab- lishment of Doroteo Bachiller who held the title of court lithographer. From Bachiller's shop was issued the Society's copy of the Album artístico de Toledo (Madrid, 1848) by Manuel de Assas, illustrated with fifty-one lithographic views by Spanish and French artists. RIBERA Lithograph An aficionado of art, the Infante Don Se- From El Artista, v. 2, p. 60 hastian de Borbón y Braganza, son of Charles the Fourth, tried his hand at lithography in the Royal Lithographic Establish- ment. Two etchings and three lithographs in Madrid collections are attributed to him. The prints collection of the Society possesses a rare lithographic repro- duction of a Crucifixion painted in 1831 by the Infante. This lithograph, made by Vicente Camarón, also a painter, was printed by the Real Establecimiento. The Society has a rare copy of the Album sevillano, published by the periodical El Sevillano as a gift to its subscribers. Dated 1838 and printed in the establishment of Vicente M. Casajus at Sevilla, the twelve lithographs, show- ing costumes and views of Sevilla, were drawn on stone by Adrien Dauzats, Pharamund Blanchard, Antonio Maria Esquivel (QS7006), Joaquin Dominguez Bécquer, and, without doubt, by his brother José. The prints collection also contains a lithograph tinted with water colour and now dis- figured by foxing, entitled La Cíïa(QS7020), repre- senting an Andalusian couple keeping their tryst. It is signed and dated J. Bécquer, Sevilla 1837. José Dominguez Bécquér, the father, of the poet and the painter, Gustavo Adolfo and Valeriano Dominguez Bécquer, was popular in Spain and England for his scenes depicting Andalusian cus- toms. Joaquin, the uncle, taught drawing to the two boys, orphaned at an early age. Among the prints and publications in the Hispanic Society which illustrate 347 HISPANIC SOCIETY the progress of lithographic art in Spain should be mentioned the better-known works such as Recuerdos y bellezas de España edited by the Catalan painter and lithographer, Francisco Javier Parcerisa, Iconografía española by Valentín Car- derera y Solano, and Historia de la villa y corte de Madrid by José Amador de los Ríos and Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado. The series of the Recuerdos (1839 to 1872), an artistic history of Spain, was issued in eleven volumes with about 600 lithographs. The artist and editor, Parcerisa, traveled through the prov- inces, collecting data for his books and making sketches which were afterwards lithographed, most of them by himself. The publication is remarkable for the beauty of the plates, romantic in style, and also for the perseverance it shows on the part of the artist who continued his sketching until overtaken by old QS7020 age JOSE BECQUER and failing eyesight. Lack of subscrip- Lithograph tions, also, caused the discontinuance of the work. Of him Azorin says that he and his friends discovered Spain for the Spaniards. The lithographs were printed in different es- tablishments at Madrid and Barcelona, prin- cipally in that of J. Donón at Madrid. In the tinted plates may be seen the early attempts at chromolithography which led to interesting effects such as the orange reflections of the iron deposits in the caverns of Artà at Mallorca and the moonlit scene showing a lonely pilgrim on the top of Peña de Martos in the province of Granada. The ninety-two lithographic plates in the two large volumes of the Society's copy of the Iconografía española, an extraordinary collec- tion of portraits, statues, tombs, and monu- ments of famous people of Spain from the PARCERISA La Peña de Martos eleventh to the seventeenth centuries, were, Lithograph with two or three exceptions, copied from From Recuerdos y bellezas de España V. 5, p. 150 drawings by Valentin Carderera y Solano, an archaeologist, writer, and painter. The Society has in its collection about one 348 PRINTS hundred of the original sketches and drawings. The lithographs, made by more than twenty Spanish and French artists, were published in the establishments of Madrid and Paris from 1855 to 1864. The set of four volumes of the Historia de la ailla y corte de Madrid (1860-64) is profusely illustrated with lithographs of portraits, views, and historic scenes, most of which were made by Spanish lithographers. As with the Parcerisa lith- ographs, some of the plates were printed in tints of pale QS7043 blue, green, orange, or pink, URRABIETA depending upon the subject Lithograph matter. The Episodios de la guerra de Africa, in the prints collection, is a little-known set of lithographs in colours of battle scenes in the war waged in Africa between Spain and Morocco during 1859 and 1860. Published in the shops of J. Donón and S. Gonzalez at Madrid, they were drawn and lithographed by Bernardo Blanco, Giménez, Carlos Múgica, José Villegas, Vicente Urrabieta (QS7043), and Ensebio Zarza. Urrabieta, the father of Daniel Urrabieta Vierge, was a prolific il- lustrator and made many lithographs as well as draw- ings for the wood engravings in Spanish novels and periodicals. After the 1834 edict of Maria Cristina, lithogra- phers and lithographic shops multiplied in Spain until they became better able to hold their own against the invasion of French artists. To the lithographers of Spain already mentioned should be added Rosario Weiss, Cayetano Rodríguez, José Avrial, José Cebrián, Daniel Perea, a deaf artist whose lithographs of bull- fight scenes were as popular as his paintings, Cecilio Pizarro, and Ensebio Planas of Cataluña. Their work is represented in the collection of the Hispanic Society. Perhaps the most interesting of them all is Maria del Rosario Weis y Zorrilla, better known as Rosario WEISS Weiss. She was a protégée of Coya and the daughter Lithograph of his housekeeper. Crowing up under his constant From Saavedra Romances históricos tutelage she, it is said, began to draw at the age of six. She was with Coya during his last years at Bordeaux. After his death in 1828, forced to support her mother and herself, she moved to Madrid and eked out a 349 HISPANIC SOCIETY living by copying paintings in public and private collections. Her original work in painting, drawing, and lithography, however, won her recognition. She was made a member of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando and ap- pointed instructor in drawing to the young queen, Isabel the Second, and her sister, the Infanta Maria Luisa Fernanda. Rosario died in 1843 at the early age of twenty-nine. Her lithographic work is represented in the collection by a por- trait of Angel de Saavedra, duke of Rivas, frontispiece to Saavedra's Romances históricos (Madrid, 1841), as well as a series of twelve views of Cuba in Isla de Cuba pintoresca by J. M. Andueza (Madrid, 1841). Her chef-d'œuvres seem to be the portraits of Goya: two drawings, one of him in his old age, and a litho- graph after the portrait painted by Vicente López y Portaña during Goya's visit to Madrid in 1826. In the National Library at Madrid are two proofs of this lithograph, one of which Rosario is believed to have touched with colour after the López portrait of her beloved friend and patron. E. E. S. MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS ^RESENTATIVE examples of the different classes of manuscripts in the Library are on constant display in the exhibition cases in the museum. These examples include royal, ecclesiastical, and papal documents, on parch- ment, with their seals—leaden or waxen, pendant or stamped—personal and holograph letters, codices, church service books with their calligraphic and illu- minated decorations, and letters patent of nobility with their heraldic paintings XII and the often found Santiago Matamoros. Royal "wheeled" grants (privilegios rodados^ are to be seen as well as cartas partidas, divided or cut-in-two documents, indentures in the true sense of the word, which from the manner of separation are also cartas dentadas. Written twice or thrice on the same sheet, often in the script of public instruments known as escritura de alhalaes, cartas partidas had a space between the sections filled with a portion of the alphabet (Abece) in large capitals. This Abece (third word in line 27 of B5) here repeated, was cut, in this instance in a dentate form, and one section was retained by each of the contracting parties. In this particular document, Juan Pérez de Villavín (iohn ps de villa Aluj, line 1) and his wife, Sol Fernández (ssol fferrandes), bestow upon the cathedral of Sevilla a perpetual annuity from the earnings of their horse mills (tahonas, line 13) in return for two tombs and an anniversary mass each year for his mother and their son, both dead, and for themselves when their time shall come (qando dios touiere por bien q meester nos ssea, line 4). Dated at Sevilla on May 28th, Era 1362 (1324 a.d .) and attested to by two other scriveners as witnesses (lines 29-31), this transaction was distributed to the parties of the first and second part by the notary public (diego fferrandes, line 32) who drew it up. The lower half of a carta partida is to be seen in B12, a private document of the same Juan Pérez de Villavín of Sevilla, and his wife, Sol Fernandez, on the one side, and the corporation of the cathedral of Sevilla on the other. Dated two years later, January 9th, Era 1364, it is attested to and subscribed to by the same Diego Fernandez (lines 40-41). A well-preserved parchment charter (privilegio rodado) is that of Alfonso the Tenth of Castilla and León (B13). Written in Castilian and dated at Aguilar de Campó on March 8th, Era 1293 (1255 a.d .), it confirms and embodies a Latin charter (lines 2-8) uttered by Alfonso the Eighth (1155-1214), at Arévalo on December 19th, Era 1225, to Pedro Rodriguez de Castro (Petro Rodici de Castro) granting to him the two towns, Villasila and Villamelendro. Beginning with the chrismon, the chi, rho, and sigma of Christ's monogram, with the apocalyptic letters alpha and omega, this charter has also the interest- ing outgrowth of the papal rota, the signo rodado, peculiar to Spain and Portugal. First used by Ferdinand the Second of León (d. 1188) and the Alfonso of the Latin charter here confirmed, known as "He of Las Navas," the signo rodado was a simple, pen-drawn wheel as here. It consists of the sign manual or cross 353 HISPANIC SOCIETY ■J Mfci r«^·lai|Uo4,·^34«^'^W|44w iceM.L·iLfA'ií^Ri¿aRCaScrSaw'"J^·'·V>aiT>gtiP'ïg·'»Ía3ï4i^'^H'3S·CiB&BhJytaW Rvv3îtt |S?^^wwJpfítt» >n^fa-í*XMÍji»d«--"t ^sîitK-^wti ■<*. ^ixww cBngyQaiK ^ rt flí!^grn»X'.'t£'^"35^^jat*Í».^ ^^M»5^ïAlí«î^3«oiiî?ïJí iwoyiiw«i»^wi* ít i»n&V«èav.vnî^iinàrS^^- -at'^D-fnSlií^ «nl-íí^S».- iUiL.#w.|.- nÍ;)t*»TS-l AnJj«s «. VÀSsíW.,. .U^ îâw',Ît3îwnJï,...„L;^sie«Ww*«ii,^^ gib» C. ' 'M^ ■ Àl L sbí eLJft " "" a» .. SiAob ■* Ar^iJui^ ' ' ■ „ "ITI'* -.jg'-wi^A. . .,-_ _u A ésy 1( í^ín »n.J*>»«.i^ íw Íí í?" îSîn tliiíiL íÉSr^leí^V.áíiti'^tí"?^ 1)^ íS^íiíwirï; KU«L.#ïki™S%f.,H|Lt',. ,,4- iâffl *?«i ... i •Ír=i¿= aà.«n ¿i^ü^yiwSir» *'5^-feBf**?* ¡gin^y itA.I íijií-.Vii^r ú. U.»! aa.,yí'ji 1,4 îiwfcartiS'flîï tJ^HcíeiS» ftMWNí'' I4.. •îàln ír-.--4-Kí îâ»tie"*fW*^A Î4.. •V^ínWwe»^*** 4B¿» j* isfVÍ»" -ifsvUWci* -í. tó-a, íí!"» u- :6^i_;^5HTiwn Uf J^v'^í'Sigsr^ .♦ -I tí»" U»' I ï" ÍÍt* -pVÍoiá ^ñítv^Á'-í' ^'· 4^A«cr •·yí»iÇe'»è«^ ^C>pt.^..„4!. ■f ^^Lype^mjitími it"***** "^" -^T ,a. _—„..—. - . ■^' - -, .u.». . fiiMA«>«^»>iv3h«?3acw»«ííïe'NÍ*^t«OT .v K*«,&4 CHARTER OF ALFONSO X. el Sabio 354 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS of the king's signature authenticated, in the outer zone, by his ministers of war and of state {alférez and major-domo) and, in flanking columns, by his retinue of confirmantes. Originally, these were actual signatures of the ratifiers, with their seals, not copies as in this charter, with the "/" of confirma serving as the ditto marks of to-day. At the left are massed the Castilian nobles (ricoshombres) and ecclesiastical dignitaries; at the right are those of León. At the top are the princes royal, the three primates, the three Moslem tributary kings, and the two French tributary barons; at the foot are his civil and military ministers, with last of all his scrivener, Millan Pérez de Aellón. The only colour in this early charter is the green bands of the two circles of the signo rodado. When this Alfonso, known to us as the Wise or the Learned, had politically combined Castilla and León, he increased the size of the wheel and placed castles and lions in colour within the arms of the cross. With succeeding kings the signos rodados grew larger and more imposing, until they fell into disuse. Both charters (B8, BIO) of Henry the Second of Castilla and León (1333/4- 1379) have in addition to the chrismon an invocation, the en el nombre de dios padre ifijo % spiritu Santo, and the king's signature. Nos El Rey (line 37 of B8 and line 36 of BIO). Al- though both charters are in a poor state of preser- vation, they show the larger wheel and an increased use of colour. In fact, in illuminated chrismon, ini- tials, cartouches, and wheel are seen about the first strivings at art in Castilla. Copying and confirming earlier grants as many of these charters do, that of John the Second of Castilla and León (1405-1454) relating to the rights of Alarcón (B7) is particularly repetitious. Dated signo rodado on May 25th, 1445, at the Royal Camp near Portillo (lines 110-111), it was inscribed while John, father of Isabel the Catholic, and his son, Henry whom Isabel succeeded as ruler, were at war with the enemies of Alvaro de Luna, the royal and beloved minister. In this charter are seen spaces for illumination, which was not added, the paragraph mark (calderón) indicating the beginning of a copied document, the vertical line corresponding to the comma, and the dot which corresponds with both comma and period. The leaden seal suspended by silk of coloured threads (line 110) is missing, but the cord of floss silk of four colours is still attached. These manuscripts (B1-B8, B10-B13) were transcribed and edited by the Palaeographer of the Society, the late A. D. Savage. In the gallery are to be seen letters of certain of the personages whose portraits adorn its walls. Here is a holograph letter of the armour-clad warrior, the Duke of Alba, whose "arrow-headed scribbling" shows that he "knew how to wield the sword better than the pen". Here also is a letter of Philip the Fourth, signed "your father, I, The King", to Baltasar Carlos, the idolized son of Philip and the lovely Isabel of Bourbon whose portrait hangs above it. 355 HISPANIC SOCIETY A holograph letter (B275) of Don John of Austria, of Lepanto, attracts at- tention. A letter (B91) of Eliza- beth of England is addressed to her "brother, cousin, and friend" Philip the Second of Spain. Only five days had she been Queen of England, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, et csetera (ambiguous words), when she affixed the few words of valediction and B27S SIGNATURE OF DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA Elizabeth R in her characteristic Italianate hand. The body of the letter was written and countersigned by her Latin tutor and writing master, Roger Ascham. Already, Philip the Prudent had instructed his ambassador that jHtLXrro. fmfinrm rtfmjxüíh^m mrcmcíiiim . ócrf^TñlKfi íumm»?■>.jcniî'-vntaè rj/ R mtir ytíSrtfuími mims pt fiiTtem irmmiikj iëjmt ajcrfififan tm (mémm ~ Jâêmin,MmUs miíiyiicumíoijt/ OiíàfsCmiítunmpíiiimití ZpíiGu oríi fiurrií^naur^^tan Ma ¡fi iníma,íi yMPrMttíaatmi ■ 7txfimíi,fn timpmnituÂc'- u mmumnHtm tmtSmWí'.mJm fimitiilif, a apám Kípmm At ¡dta .famtkstmpr. htaHíUmmsííihfámu>Afí^mcn ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND Signed letter 356 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS he had finally resolved to "render this service to God and offer to marry the Queen of England", but she had not yet received the offer. The signature of Sir Walter Raleigh, "your ouer louinge Husbande W® Raleighe" is dated at Catiana Guiana, November 14th, 1617, a year before his execution, and is contained in a volume of material pertaining to the Spanish Armada. A brief, of the Spanish Rodrigo Borja in the Holy See at Rome as Pope Alexander the Sixth, is addressed to Ferdinand and Isabel, the Catholic Kings, relative to their rights in the mastership of the Order of Alcantara. Dated June 18th, 1494, in the second year of his pontificate, this docu- ment on parchment does not bear a seal. It is signed by Ludovico Podocataro, bishop of Capaccio (L. Podocatharus), secretary to the Pope. A letter in Castilian of Ferdinand and Isabel bears their signatures, yo el Rey and yo la Reyna, \Ê)LyBL_ and their impressed wax seal covered by paper. It is countersigned J. A. by Gaspar de Grizio, BOOK OF HOURS IN SILHOUETTE their secretary, and Gift of James Speyer is addressed to the Dean and Chapter of the church at Toledo. Writ- ten from Granada on September 5th, 1500, it de- sires that before the end of the following October fifteen priests and fifteen sacristans, with neces- sities for a year's sojourn, be dispatched to the Alpujarras to instruct the newly converted Moors in Christianity. Relative to a pension for Titian "our painter", is a decree in Latin, signed by Charles the Fifth, emperor PORTUGUESE BINDING of Germany and king of Spain, grandson of the Catholic Kings. Several items of religious interest are on ex- hibition. An example of the patience to which devout zeal inspires is a small Book of Hours, in silhouette, to the in 1903 SIGNATURE OF presented Society by HENRY VII OF ENGLAND James Speyer. The entire text and accompanying illustrations were cut from the paper by hand with skill and delicacy of execution by one Vicente Fernandez de Arcas in 1765. One of the three known copies of "black" books is the Book of Hours (B251) 357 HISPANIC SOCIETY of Mary, consort of Alfonso the Fifth of Aragón. Written partially in silver and gold on vellum stained black, this book, a gift of "inestimable worth", was pre- sented to the Archbishop of Toledo by that harried bishop of the New World, Juan Palafox y Mendoza. Complete as to text, its miniatures were never added. Showing the close resemblance between the late manuscript books and the earliest printed books is the Missal according to the usage of Barcelona, com- piled about 1460. Comparing this carefully inscribed codex, with its calligraphic initials and borders, with such specimens of early printing as the Mozarabic Missal and Breviary, one can understand how the legend, if nothing more, could arise that Fust palmed off one of the Mainz Bibles as a manuscript. Spanish books, in general, are covered with a simple parchment binding, mellowed by years to a soft ivory colour. Added by the printer or bookseller as the equivalent of the paper bindings of tp-day, these flexible "temporary" cov- erings, with crossed kid lacings at the sides of the backbone, with closings of kid thongs or of green silk, or of cord loops and little knotted kid buttons, easily identify old Spanish books. The titles in Gothic lettering run the length of the backbone, from the top downwards rather than from the bottom upwards, and were sometimes the work of monks in their spare hours. A Missale romanum, reputedly from the private chapel of the kings of Portugal, is a fine specimen of Portuguese binding. The red velvet background is overlaid with silver bosses, eight-pointed, Maltese crosses, and an enclosing .rbííg[T[ln 5unpinut4x)2C be . Vf b t\s ctiYci.1 bfr mine fccinionitt .o c run ymiO Xjmiu.Avnimlhjai oCiDiclci'i.aitlbiljO: iV mmtas p.. rtemr.ip!, m .XT Sjc . XI ; \>ioiüa. . ¡42I >3utc"uu ' ' V bi Jubjfi Cl - r cjiui J; 4 ^oetnb^t»tllC^eu5^ Xbict? 9cSrjiinoccnai«u m aoiutoríttm mciimf ^ F iii'i f bt>:i i f cuiincu ii mtenœ "Domíhc AoírníTi Dittn mc fíivíHnij^lu ami er lio ctvfpíufíü - B251 •BLACK" BOOK OF HOURS Fifteenth century 358 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS frame with two clasps. In the centre of each cover, in elaborate frames, are silver-gilt representations of the Lamb with the Flag of Saint John, surrounded by the inscription inter natos mulierum non surexit , and on the back major joanne baptista. A Hebrew Bible (B241) written, in part, in letters of gold on vellum is a good example of workmanship and illumination. Certain leaves, with golden, Oriental, geometrical forms covered with tracery, have only delicate touches around the seven-branched candlestick as colour notes. Other sheets have coppery back- grounds, studded with golden, furred dots, spread peacocks, owls, and wiverns. This Bible was already "of many centuries" according to a Portuguese note on a flyleaf, when it was found at Pisa in the Jewish year 5378(1618 a.d.). laacob Curiel "about to enter the service of God" purchased it from a family of Rosilhos, natives of Fez, who were in great need. Undoubtedly of Hispanic origin, written probably at Toledo or Córdoba and left unfinished, it was acquired in 1906 for the Society by the late Doctor Richard Gottheil, Orientalist of Columbia University. Items of associated interest are a portrait, a letter, and a decree. Philip, arch- duke of Austria (1478-1506), whose portrait (A 1953) is here shown, married Juana, daughter of the Catholic Kings, who became their heir. When he, known as "the Handsome", decided to take his family to Spain to claim his wife's in- hebrew bible Probably fifteenth century 359 HISPANIC SOCIETY heritance from her mother, a violent storm at sea forced them to land in England. Apparently, a personal friendship sprang up between Philip and Henry Tudor of England (1457-1509). This letter (B15) of Henry, written in French from Richmond on June eighth, acknowledges Philip's letters and assures him that they and their little children are kept in affectionate remembrance. In this connection it may be recalled that on the following thirtieth of Septem- her, Philip died at Burgos in an unexpected manner, while Ferdinand, who had relinquished his regency, was absent in the Kingdom of Naples. Juana, a tragic person, accompanied her husband's body across the autumnal wastes of Castilla. The second daughter of Ferdinand and Isabel, Juana is known as "the Mad". Undoubtedly eccentric, probably mentally unbalanced, as queen she was sue- cessively under the regency of her husband, Philip the Handsome, of her father, and of her son, Charles the Fifth. Although she lived until the year her famous son resigned his powers and retired to Yuste, for forty-seven years she had not left her palace at Tordesillas. This decree, dated at Sevilla on May 22nd, 1511, confirms in her name the appointment of Don Alonso Nino de Castro to the office of merino mayor of the city of Valladolid. The countersignature is Lope de Conchillos "secretary to the Queen"; the signature is that of her father, Ferdi- nand the Catholic. With the advent of the printing press, scribes and illuminators were forced to become secretaries, writing masters, decorators of printed books, or of such witnesses of pride in lineage and coin of the realm as letters patent of nobility (cartas ejecutorias de hidalguía). During the reigns of Philip the Second and Philip the Third, these diplomas containing the family history and legally acknowledging its or a person's nobility became elaborate and colourful. The two ejecutorias (B146, B286) here ex- hibited are good examples of this branch of manuscript painting. This painting of Santiago Matamoros (Saint James Slayer of Moors) on the milk-white charger has been reproduced in colour as the frontispiece to volume three of The Way of Saint James by Georgiana Goddard King (the So- ciety's publication 120). This codex proceeds from the Barrois-Ashburnham manuscript collection. Exhibited also are letters of Charles the Second (B203), of Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga (B233), B286 of Anne of Austria, queen consort of Louis the ILLUMINATION OF SAINT JAMES Thirteenth of France (B82), of Margaret of Aus- SLAYER OF MOORS tria, and of Isabel of Portugal, empress of Charles the Fifth (B98), all of whom are represented by portraits on the gallery walls. In decided contrast to the careful, clear script of Roger Ascham, Ludovico Podocataro, and even of Don John of Austria and Charles "the Bewitched" is the penmanship shown in the holograph letters by Philip the Fourth, by 360 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS the Duke of Alba (B288, B195), and by the letter (B104) of Margaret of Austria. Daughter of Charles the Fifth, wife of Alexander, duke of Florence, and afterwards married to Octavio Farnese, prince of Parma, she served Philip the Second well as governor-general of the Netherlands in troublous times. The large manuscript church service books, commonly known as choir books, are well rep- resented in the Library. They comprise grad- uals, antiphonaries, responsories, temporales, and special divisions of the mass. With notes and words so large that they might be read by the entire choir even in the dim light of cathedrals, the size of these books seems to have been increased with the succeeding cen- turies. At all events, those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are sometimes yv yMÙrr' more than double the size of those of the fif- teenth century. Although the two hundred ^ W /I i V-O and sixteen volumes ordered for the Escorial in 1572 M ^ I measure over five feet across when oÉfaht^C open, the largest tomes in the Library I ¿CC are under these dimensions. It is possible that the monastic scribes, in an effort at self- Margaret of Austria preservation, consciously increased the size Holograph letter until they were too large for the early printers to manage comfortably. The majority of the choir books in the Society belong to the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries and bear strong Italian traits. Unsigned in general, there are illuminations by the Dominican friar, Joannes Ballus of Naples, dated in the years 1601 and 1603. Miniatures of the Resurrection, the Ascension, and the Annuncia- tion with colourful borders are the work of a G. B. D. Rosa in 1601. As do those of Brother Ballus, his golden initials have a black tracery imposed. An earlier and much smaller book is an antiphonary dated September 15th, 1484, and signed by Andreas Totonicus. This book has no miniatures but striking initials. An an- tiphonary written by Hieronymus Nolanus in 1615 has an unfinished last page with the notes and text traced out in ink. The open letters {letras de compas) were often filled with tangent circles and squares, arabesques, and leaf scrolls in delicate shades. Always noticeable are these violet and red or red and blue initials with their far-flung tendrils. In one instance nearly half the large page is covered by the calligraphic letter "U." However beautiful calligraphic illustration may be, illumination, with its gold and rich colours, is in a different category. Although signos rodados were painted on the bare vellum, other forms of illumination were often placed on gold or monochrome backgrounds. Spanish artists, instructed in the French manner, or, possibly, French artists themselves were the illuminators in Spain at the time of Alfonso the Tenth. During the next century, Italian influences 361 HISPANIC SOCIETY LEAF OF CHOIR BOOK Illuminated vellum Probably fifteenth century 362 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS arrived by way of Avignon, and in the second half of the fifteenth century, Flemish manners prevailed. Influences of the Italian Renaissance are to be found in the dull golden backgrounds strewn with shadow berries, precious gems, medals, masks, and human forms terminating in leafage of the patents of nobility. Colours, laid on twice, are heavy and thick; gold, so striking in its brilliance, was often laid over a burnished red or terra cotta base. Again, the colours were thin and opaque as in the manuscript of Civera, written about 1630, with its white-clad Carthusian monks. Gayly coloured butterflies, dragon flies, thistle heads, seed pods, red-legged storks, peacocks, writhing red-tongued serpents in the beaks of blue flamingoes are found with, apparently, an avoidance of sym- holism and any attempt to explain the text. Unconcerned with the theme of the codex, the illuminator's objective was beautification to the utmost of his ability. These books were written hair or yellow side to hair side, white or flesh side to flesh side. The four and, later, five lines of the staff were traced by a pointed instrument, as an awl or bodkin, following a ruler after the distance between the lines had been pricked into or through the skins or marked by a compass. These lines, often traced with such a sharp instrument that they are evident on the reverse side, are invariably red, the quadrate notes of the Gregorian plain chant are black and seldom faded. At the ends of the pages are the directs (guiones), indicatory, in the manner of catchwords, of the note beginning the next line. Scribes were not infallible copyists; in the margins are often found corrections and insertions of omissions. "He who knows not how to write thinks that writing is no labour", said the scribe Florencio in 945 a.d ., "but be certain, and 1 assure you that it is true, it is a painful task. It extinguishes the light from the eyes, it bends the back, it crushes the viscera and the ribs, it brings pain to the kidneys, and weariness to the whole body. Therefore, 0 reader, turn ye the leaves with care, keep your fingers far from the text, for as a hail storm devas- tates the fields, so does the careless reader destroy the script and the book. Know ye how sweet to the sailor is arrival at px)rt? Even so for the copyist is tracing the last line." A word may be added about the sturdy bindings of these heavy manuscripts. They were bound in stout oaken boards partly to counteract the curling tend- ency of the parchment. Sometimes the boards were entirely covered by heavy leather; again the edges were bound by metal strips, plain or stamped, and fastened to the covers with crude, irregular, flat-headed tacks. Openwork (calado) metal corners are seen and metal bosses resembling door nailheads. These bosses were made in a half sphere and were placed five or more to a side. At times they were pierced to correspond with the corners, again they were terraced. Often, metal projections and plates, which might be termed "shelves" for relieving the strain on the sewing of the leaves, were added to the lower edges, and two to four bronze clasps. Sometimes a metal casing covered the wooden boards. Occasionally, as with vargueños, red velvet or red-stained parchment appears beneath the metal ornamentations. Instead of a solid backbone, seven or more leather bands one and a half to two inches wide were often used, affixed 363 HISPANIC SOCIETY only to the covers. A well-preserved binding is that on the Masses for the feast days from Saint Andrew to the Nativity of Saint John (January to June) dating from the last of the seventeenth century. It is of a heavy light-coloured leather, drawn over oaken boards, with bronze ornaments placed above parchment. The exhibition of printed books is represent- ative only of the Library's collection of incunabula —excluding the case which is devoted entirely to Don Quixote. The Library contains some two hun- dred and fifty examples of Hispanic incunabula. They comprise books printed on the Peninsula, in Latin, Castilian, Catalan, Valencian, Portu- guese, and Hebrew, books in Spanish printed else- where, together with specimens of German and Italian contemporary work, useful for comparison and study. The Latin word, incunahulum, possibly LEATHER BINDING best translated as "cradle book" has found more WITH BRONZE ORNAMENTATION favour than the English word, "incunable," as ap- plying to a book printed during the fifteenth century, that is, up to the begin- ning of the year 1501. This is the accepted definition of the term, and it is here used in that sense, although the first books printed in any country are sometimes loosely referred to as incunabula. Accepting the preponderance of ecclesiastical and theological literature as right and natural in view of the education of the clergy and the interest of the clergy and the people, the preponderance of books in the Latin language is also right and natural, that being the official tongue of the courts of Europe as well as the language of the Church. The range of incunabula in Spain covers, in addition, translations, classics, science, philoso- phy, history, law, literature, in fact much the range of present-day interest, were poetry to be strengthened in proportion to its place in actuality and if fiction were to supplant its prototype, romances of chivalry. Wanting only, during this period of great geographical discovery, are imprints pertaining thereto. No books telling of the wonders and difficulties of exploration, no maps or sailing directions are to be found. The explanation for such silence on the part of the printing offices appears to be, as in Portugal, the result of governmental policy. Thirty towns of present-day Spain and Portugal, together with Perpignan, annexed to Aragon, Cagliari in Sicily, and Miramar de Valdemosa, with perhaps the city now known as Palma de Mallorca in the Balearic Islands, contained printing presses in the fifteenth century. To these thirty-four sites may tenta- tively be added Segovia. Of the printing companies, variously estimated from ninety-five to one hundred and three, it must be realized that there were by no means that number of different printers. Several, as Lambert Palmart, Nicolas Spindeler, Pedro Hagenbach, Juan Rosenbach, and Juan Luschner, appeared alone as well as in different partnerships and in different towns. Of their output 364 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS of eight to nine hundred books, something like a fourth is represented in the Library of the Society, or two hundred and thirteen for twenty-two, possibly twenty-three, towns and sixty printers. The first books in Spain, as in other countries, are recognizable by the lack of title-pages, chapter divisions, colophons, foliation, and signature marks. It has been considered that signature marking was introduced into printed books at Cologne in 1472. Pagination, or rather foliation, had been introduced slightly earlier, in 1470-71 also at Cologne, but meeting with less favour, was slower in being adopted. These early books, with sheets folded once and gathered into signatures of six, eight, ten leaves, as they come down to us, often have an un- even number of leaves in certain signatures, particularly the first and the last. The first leaf was left blank, possibly for a later title, more probably as a pro- tection to the text, as was also the last leaf of the last signature. Signature marking in Hispanic books was usually in letters, capital or lower case. If the size of the book ran over one set of letters, the twenty-three of the al- phabet, the other set was used; or the letters were doubled, trebled, as necessary. For instance, in Las side partidas (Haebler 519) the minuscule alphabet is quad- rupled and the majuscule, tripled. In the semblance of codices, spaces were left on the printed page for the capitals, often with minuscule letters as guides to the illu- minator and with the first printed letter a majuscule to graduate the sizes. Many times these spaces have been filled in crudely with red and blue inks, alternating. With wide margins for annotations, corrections, and illuminated borders as in manuscripts, the books were in folio or large quarto size. The size of incunabula is usually determined by the position of the chain lines and watermarks. In the folio size, the chain lines are vertical, with the watermark about the centre of the leaf, and the water lines are horizontal. In the quarto, the position of the lines is reversed and the watermark is at the middle of the binding. In these earliest books there is no punctuation beyond the square, tiny cross, or asterisk-like period, the diagonal comma, the period and the colon, with the calderón (^) or calderilla (d) to mark paragraphs. With the books of Antonio de Lehrixa are to be found many modern marks of punctuation, the parentheses, the question mark, diphthongs, and the common ampersand. Again in the like- ness of manuscripts are the many signs of abbreviation. The most usual of these are the for the ending rum, eg for the enclytic que, superior ^ for us, tildes for omission of m and n, tildes or apostrophes for passive endings, lines through ascending or descending letters for the more common prefixes and suf- fixes, as p for per, pre, p for pro, q for quod, q for que, qui, quo, p or 9 for con, com, ^ for se, si, ç for z, ^ for Der, as well as many others. Also is to be seen in liturgical books the red cross for the sign of blessing and the 1^ for re- sponses. The sharp r or "r perruña" is indicated at times, as in manuscripts, by a capital R, or at other times, as with Fadrique de Basilea, by the arbitrary sign ff. The "Incipit", the "Explicit" or colophon, and the "Deo Gratias" were taken directly from the codices. As the scribe included his name in the "Explicit", so the printer began in- 365 HISPANIC SOCIETY eluding his in the colophon. In the manner of the scribe finishing with his rubrica or flourish, the printer came also to adopt a distinctive mark. Juan Hurus, at Zaragoza, introduced this custom into Spain. The colophon, including as it usu- ally did, the title of the book, the dedicatory acknowledgment of the printer to his patron, the place of printing, the printer, and the date of issuance epit- omized what soon began to divide. A title-page, in the strictest sense of the word, an otherwise blank page bearing simply a xylographie word or two of brief title, was the first offshoot. Unusual was a title set in type as was Palencia's Universal vocabulario (Haebler 510). The decoration of Hispanic incunabula in the main was xylographie, al- though certain persons have found indications of the use of metal. The wood carver was something more than a copyist: he transformed Germanic, Nether- landish, and French originals into Hispanic art. "H" the carver of Fadrique de Basilea's set of rich initials and "I. D." who may have been Jean Dalles are the only signatures known in the fifteenth century. It is more than likely that types were first cast in moulds of clay or sand before the method of punch, matrix, and adjustable mould was discovered. Lead, tin, and pewter were probably the metals employed, with enough anti- mony to ensure hardness. Melted together, this hot mixture was poured into the moulds and well shaken into the corners. The most important member of a printing firm was the type maker. Often trained as a gold or silversmith, as was the Spanish Fernández de Córdoba, he designed the fonts, impressing such a decided individuality upon them that Robert Proctor could recognize hundreds of type faces as others recognize people. He then cut them and cast the type. Well educated, he probably was often forced to combine in himself the addi- tional offices of compositor and proof reader. In looking over the list of printers in the fifteenth century, one sees that almost invariably two men started a printing establishment. These two men might carry with them, from one place to another, their punches and even their matrices, but it is unlikely that they transported their heavy types and presses. In addition to having to find towns where work offered and where patrons might be secured, they had also to seek places with heavy timber and suitable buildings. The presses were large, clumsy, and expensive with heavy, solid stanchions, crosspieces, and pedestals. The uprights often went from floor to ceiling for additional reënforcement to steady the screw. From this screw the platen was suspended. The type was set on a flat bed of stone or on a solid wooden block, or later, upon chases. Upon this inked bed the dampened unsized paper was laid, and the platen, running in grooves, was screwed down by man power with a movable bar. So much strength was required to turn a similar screw in a paper mill that a bell summoned all workers for the operation. The oldest cut of a Spanish press appears on the worn printer's mark of Francisco de Guzman at Toledo, who was working there in 1563. The conditions under which these printers worked and by which they were influenced are unknown, except for a few scattering documents. Their books are their only hostages to posterity. 366 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS In an endeavour to surround these "cradle books" with something of the atmosphere of the far-away days to which they belong, detailed descriptions of the exhibited books have been omitted entirely. For the person who may wish additional information, specific references to bibliographies are included in parentheses. These bibliographies are Doctor Kon- rad Haebler's indispensable Bibliografía ibérica del siglo XV, in two volumes, and the uncompleted Gesamtliaialog der wiegendrucbe, with passing refer- enees to such outstanding students of Hispanic books as Albareda, Juan Catalina y García, Doctor Desbarreaux-Bernard, Foulché-Delbosc, Gallardo, Doctor Stephen Gaselee, Heredia, J. P. R. Lyell, the Portuguese bibliophile Fernando Palha, Pérez Palha 1304 Pastor, Proctor, Salva, and Juan Manuel Sánchez. SPANISH PRINTING PRESS A twenty-volume set. List of printed bool^s in the li- brary of The Hispanic Society of America, was issued in 1910, in 1929 a List of books printed before 1601, and in 1938 a List of books printed 1601-1700. The chief exhibition is of books printed in Spain before 1501 with a few incu- nabula of Hispanic interest printed elsewhere. These books are arranged alpha- betically by author and are illustrative of many bibliographical points. As is to be presumed, from mere term of years, incunabula are rare books. It has been said that those from the Hispanic Peninsula are the least known and least often seen. The first book is an unknown, un- listed Latin edition of yîisop's fables with a title-page in Valenciem. Edited by Lorenzo Valla, secretary to Alfonso the Fifth of Aragon, it was printed at Valencia by Lope de la Roca (possibly Wolf von Stein in his native German) on October 13th, 1495, a little more than a fortnight later than the similar edition preserved in the University library at Cagliari. With it is a copy of the jtSOP. Les fabulas Valencia, October 13. 1495 Sermo (Haebler 8) preached by Juan de Title-page Colmenares, abbot of Aguilar, on the occa- sion of the auto defé at Zaragoza of the assassins of Pedro de Arbués, first inquisi- tor of Aragon. Heretofore this pamphlet of eight unnumbered leaves has been as- cribed to the year 1498. Earlier than 1494 it can not be placed with present knowl- edge. It is printed in roman type, which the printer, Fadrique de Basilea of Bur- gos, first used on April 12th, 1494, and has been identified by his device which appears at the end. After Juan Hums at Zaragoza (1490), Fadrique (1491) 367 HISPANIC SOCIETY was the first printer in Spain to use a device. It is, partially at least, through his devices that he has been connected with the Fried- rich Biel who printed at Basle in company with Michael Wenssler of Strassburg. This early mark, with variations of size and detail, presents a lion, or lion-like animal, hold- ing a banner, at times (tSqiuftw (lae partíoa» Ru coOírirdmof tpuXnu -Atnnuoroqucfu9 rmotet^tMaiK ficrcparTioad. Xj«k.L>d^ • cndlat (uu parciett it connmí cioic . pníoqoaametJtH the inverted figure four, loifionet od Pooot otd>onulao.fi)iUc« duplication C)PoRoipcronqpcCTfagtofagqocftfainiPe D. «oeaoociK Icrcauoo OIdcno tapw blbd an siderable financial and te qnc í(porta odaa otraa qtte íbcran antigna literary as well as me- mente tenioaa po:buenas y poi ocreebas. £ •U!«mmm.n porq tK loa omta palabras qorloa iriguospa Za quartapatToa tieneooa qtnntemoa el pri/ chanical undertaking. Both editions are ~ flcrofitfino regU occcitcbo avotMe pud* .ielpo(!rcro,eece4Circaten!M repre- myocparróaepoílwlcitíortcnnrtroli' bbbb b:oiffl(onK>acíttf3ai^nw0*po}ÍDenolad4 ZaquIupanrèaritntfcfffqMgUrcneino9qucabonMnloeaçcn £J9.£.^.£vnten»j6. ploí que aquí ívemoflKinoitracoí. ** the earlier a duplicate from the library of the Escorial. It is remembered that the books in ^ZaafloepjrtfDa» qod finnímmo x mor the Escorial were placed on the shelves with ocellcK ícDOi oonStfbnib rey M ¿aRíIZai X Zeon i{.xglonoCj memoriKnono ocfteiton^ bx R)o X mancocoifiiUra recujiramuf p:o' the fore edges outward, in accordance with oecbofa bieneoacx toca»bapancípdl» f(i crtas íBcki^pot muy Iblenit't ap»>baioo6 (unlriu9 prdatuaerncn facercoasftcur iîf abfoluerc rdperinfirmiraremcencu acubfroaifuueareercpílcopuajnó facera» poreft called the Second gothic group of Salamanca. pifccrieúice fumenoo occalîoncomalorxi per atiu ccmirenoD hoc alrcH. exaustru ou ineaure fe haber. Vnre 2Iu Also shown are his Latin Introduc- guÎKrmo cepeni.oi.«i.c.i. Caueat fpírí Seo nora $ propriua facera» alirer grammar tualíamcexrrficufnon cômifîr crimen íSeUigirur 8 cum oicitur 9» quilíberre nequírieiira non carear muñere ktentie. bcr confíreriprcprio facera)ti:cr alirer tiones latinae (Haebler 464) and his Spanish Œj: quibuarerbía inraiiturq» confcíTor fîue facera» 0} habere tUarria ep auto ritateñugu.preallegara.TSrimo poref cafuoiarur propriua facera» qutcûq; grammar (Haebler 470), the first attempt tateminforocôlldcric rr.f.fir tucexfpí haber poreftarem ebfolucnoi orTnnaria3 riraalio, Geciuns conferuarepuríratem relcdegarSiîuefîfcômuniasiîue fir fîn at a scientific and its counterfeit rire fueine cômirrar crime nequirie . gulariaiquta actor fequinn forO reitfeo grammar, Zerdo habere fufftcienrem Icirrie darí eft in electione eiuequcm forû et muiría rare rr non carear muñere kienrie. fequatunnift fît acrio zealia in qua fequi edition. In both roman and gothic types, in- rurfonimrcioequa agirur.Ér quia in foropcnirenricicemcftacrorer reuasin ^econfefTorister quiapotnr rdnon ce eft ^ ioemfe ipfum porcft accufa» cunabula issued at Salamanca were probably pofllrauotrecceifefnones « coram quocunq3 coitfefloze ceomnibuai qui illum poilir abfoUiere ce crimine rbí under the of Antonio de eSq3 cómilfoquia huiufmoriabiblutio printed supervision NOtlbum non reljjícír rcrriroriumjfîcuralia ratio mocft» nôfàrercopeierrflpof ne reí rel celicri. "prcprer quoo cicir Lebrixa and on presses established in his firaoeire conf^oneo incia/iu b^i,9»quiliber habí tree lâcerœree normnonramcn tf^iótocre poteftialfl proprioa orrinarie.f.curarum cecuii» own house. With no identifying printer's Haebler 19 ANTONINUS. Summula name, these books have been denominated by Valencia, 1477 Doctor Haebler, First Group and Second First page Group, subdividing each Group into roman and gothic. The First Group was active be- £ll3talfa&oellevocabulariopo:losinuyalto3 tween 1481 and 1487; the Second Group 1 muy poocrofoe principes cl iRcy i la iRcyna is represented by over fifty imprints between nucllrosfeiiorcscpor loe oel fu muy alto cou fqo en oojicntos i oiejmaraucois. 1492 and 1500. To the Second gothic Group Haebler 468 belong these books, with the exception of £ftata(r3£)o dievocabulario po:losmuyaltOB Iniroduciiones which belongs to the Second 1 muy pocierofospjinapes cl iRcy i la iRcvna nueftros fdiojcs cpojlosoct fu muy alto confc roman Group, and the Saint Antoninus of 30 en cinco reales oeplata. March 10th, 1495. The counterfeit edition Haebler 469 ANTONIO DE LEBRIXA. Vocabulario of the Grammar, one of half a dozen or so Salamanca, 1492 counterfeits issued about 1770 in a word-for- Salamanca [ca. I495P] word, line-for-line, page-for-page Tassa copy may have been so self-evidently a reprint that the person responsible did not consider 369 HISPANIC SOCIETY Trlcen(.c.a.por caii cno treinta Vera In(IecIlnablle.pòrcIafla(!ero Tncdfpls lilts.por cofa de tres punt Vefper erls.porla tardeodltella SdamnliittasafficrchrMfoJprinnrattoilaSfrsbdIa Tr>bul«i.l.porcl trillo para ttllLtt Veftras atb. por lo de ufa tlern o uandd ttrctra pelte nombre Iftctna i feñora natural ce cipa.- Ttibulus.uporcl abrolo V fens tls.portlQ rio de lulla Tnptoton.por cofa de tres car» V ibez Ids.por la feñal dd golpe Sa alas telasP nuellro , « , mar./Comícn^ la gramática Trlpu5oils.cretidesocof4detrespies Vlburnii.il.por ur* mr... - j noaerpcdedeulmbre nueva mente bi$o et macRro Antonio ne Icbriba Tftfononls.porondlosdelamar Vides aduerblum que Troasadls.por una regló de trola. V lcenl.x.a.pofcada aeinte ueses fobte la lengua caRellana. «ponepnmero elpiologo T rudols.trufi.poc empusar V Iceoi a olee, pot la uea o fortuna Tuba.c.porlatronipeu V I«geUs Is. uelntc alTcs.- ateeloenbuenora. .por Tubtcen luu.por el ouc la tañe. V iiulta orum.pot las fieftas dei u Í im i^anoobien eomfgo pienio muí eicla Tubuina.«.pjrUquelatañe VlJiclols.* . - ' ^ TubetcrU-porlatur V lrus.l.pot el hcdoro potçona. rcoDa1^ema:ípon0OOclátcloao)O0 V ifcum.l.por liga para i Vilci cl anttgueoao oe tooas las cofas : poru que ls.pbr mirar odefender. Vilo Is.por para nucllra recoroacion a memoria X ugunudl.por Uehozaocaband Vlcifcor cru.por uengar T umulus.l.por d cerro o fepultui V ligo Inls.por la umiOad dcla tlcmi qucDaron eicriptas: una coia ba'llo e fa'co poieoDclu< ultra prspolicto.por allende unedoauls.por'cl madroño fion mui aerta:que iiempre la tengiia fuecompañera Tuntca.c.por la ueílldura interior* aliguen Inls.por la groiluta bel imperiote be tal manera lo fi^ió: que )unta men Tüor cris.por mirar- onls.por la perla T te urgeo es.por hinchirfe cofa ligera comcn^ró. crecieron, z norecieron.e befpues )iU Turoo oals.poc d tetucUloo mberit.porUtcla ta ñie la'caiba be enmambos.^ berabos agora las co Vada.c.por el zanafofo geo es.porcoflreiílr fasmili halla. antiguas bclqueapenastencmos unaimo. f prarpofiúo.por gen efombra bela verbabtcuales ion las belos afrui. os. dudad de aírkaa inbos. ana lidonios. z egmcios : K.por enlos cuales repOi< V zglo U.por llorar d uind. bn'a mui bienptovarlo Valdcadusrbium.potmuj mocho* quebigo: vengo alas mas Valu« afum.pot las puertas freicaste aquellas eipecial mete be que tenemos ma. Vannus.tpot la zaranda b harnero Xenium.lL pord prefentedd hncTpcd^ VarU-ids.por el ñüJo délas uenas Xetos.lntcrpretatur ficcus. íorcciribumbrciípnmeroálasbelosjubíos. /Cofa Vas uadiS'por d Dador déla perfonall )(crafflpeUnus.a.uffl.por cola uerde.* es que mui ligeramente fe InlUnco puebc d adeuino averiguar que la Icn Vates ts.por por -* Vaticanu$.l.poru giia cbraica tuvo ib niñej: en la cual a penas pubo ba blar. 9llámoioagorafuprimcraniñe$tobo aquel tiempo que losjubios elhivíeron en tierra beegipto. Veneo Ís.lal.por fer oendido que escofa verbabera o mui cerca bela vcrbab: Venetus.a.ú. cofa parda o de oeneeU la dioiâ ddos amores que los Venus cris.por patriarcas bablarian en aquella lengua que s.por el udlodno traro Slbrabam be tierra belos eaiecos: baila que be VCTnms.poríl utt.no Ventrum.l.por el uedegambre cenbieroii en egiptoit que alliperbcrüalgo be a4lla: Verbctetls.pordá: Vcma.Jc.por d lieruo que nace In'cal eme;clarianalgo.belaegipcii). aUbasbefpuesqfa Vemus.a.nia.porcoûdc ucrano. licron be egiptoie audad de Halla comcprb a bajerpot II mefmos cu V eroiu.c. por .u na be Vepres lum.poç bs erpo gcte : poco a poco apartariau fu ligua cogiba Verres is.por d pu' cuanto Verfol5.por barrel «.-v. iopienfobclacalbeaebelaegipciatebelaque Vcrfiu pncpoúuo.pot lusla ellos temían comunicaba ençrçji : por fer apartabos Haebler 464 ANTONIO DE LEBRIXA. Inlrodmliones Haebler 470 Salmaticie, September 30, 1495 ANTONIO DE LEBRIXA. Gramática Last page with colophon Salamanca, August 18, 1492 First page A la mni alta e afai cfclarecida prifleefa dona Ifabel 1^ tercera dcflc nombre Reina i feñora it tutural de efpa- necessary to state the fact. However, it may ña e las islas de nucAro mar. Comienza la cramatica be said that the critic, qoe nuevamente hizo el maeSro Antonio de lebriaa nineteenth-century (obre U lengua caflellana.c pone primero el prolosa Aureliano Fernández-Guerra Léelo burn y Orbe, felt rather en ora. Cuando bien comigo pienfo mui efcla- vehemently otherwise. In a holograph letter in recidaKeina : i pongo delante los ojos el antigüedad de todas las cofas ; que the Society, dated at Madrid, March 8th, 1876, para nucflra recordación e memotia quedaron efcriptas : una cofa hallo e fáco por conclu* he says that they were made not in a generous fion mui cierta : que fiempre la lengua fue compañera delimperio : e de tal manera lo figuió: que juntamen- spirit but as a bait for scholars and bibliophiles. te comenzaron, crecieron, e florecieron, e defpues jun. ta fue la caida de entrambos. I dcxadas agora las co« The Society's copy of the original edition is fas mui antiguas de que apenas-tenemos una ima* gen e fombra de la verdad: cuales fon las de los afsírU imperfect. It has been completed in photo- os. iodos, {tcionios. e egipcios : en los cuales fe po- dría mui bien provar lo que digo : vengo a las roas graphic facsimile through the courtesy of the fteícas: e aquellas efpccialmente de que tenemos ma» ior certidumbre : e primero a las de los judios. Cofa British Museum. es que mui ligeramente fe puede averiguar que la len gua ebraica tuvo fumiñezien la cual apenas pudo ha* Laws are represented in the Fori aragonû. biar. í llamo io agora fu primera niñez todo aquel tiempo que los judios eílqvieron qn tierra de egipio. Aragón was always jealous of its rights, as its Por que es cofa verdadera o mui cerca.de la verdad: que ios patriarcas hablarían aquella lengua accurate in spirit, if en que apocryphal, formula bore traxo Abraham.de: tierra de los caldeos: hafta que de- ccnJicton en egiptK eque alli perderían algo de aquella: witness, "We, who are as worthy as you and e mezclarían algó de la egipcia. Mas defpues que fa- more lieron de egipto: e cO-mcozaron a hazer por fi mefmos cu- powerful, elect you king provided you re- erpo de gente: poco a poco aparrarían fu lengua cogida lataldea de la de la spect our io de egipcia; and e rights liberties; between us stands cuanto picnfo e que ellos tcrniaa. commiicada entre íi: por fcr apartados .a.ii. the law, a higher authority; if not. No." With Salva 2340 its title escutcheon bearing the bars of Aragón, COUNTERFEIT EDITION First the Moors' heads page couped, and the cross of Saint George, this book (Haebler 280) is printed in the 370 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS double-column manner of lawbooks, a custom borrowed from Germany and Italy. Whether or not they were the inventors of movable metal types, Germans were the first to undertake printing. They made type in the semblance of their handwriting. These types they took with them when they went into Italy. The Italian scribes had an entirely different style of handwriting, clear, light, and legible, and this the Italians demanded for their books. The Spaniards, on the ON NOWM ESSE CONSTAT BEA tiCTime pater {cdíatníndeabantíquís frequentifli meuficatumutqui iitteianim {ludíísinfádant bo mines laborura fuorum opera ad Principes fcribant Qood mi bi ceciiTe vidcntur non quo difcíplináq aliquam illis proponant fed quo amor acbeniuolenciaiiia bonis Principibus innotcfcat Ac ex eorum aucoritate ad quos libri icribuncut quedam ip fis libris accedat aucoritas Ego igitur borum fcquucus cxcra plum uigilias quafciam meas non temnendas ut rcor fed quod fine arrogancia didbúmuelim nofiris bominibus uaide utiles cu; reuetencia tuo nomine preicripfi Namctunper uacatáoncm apoflolice fedisnuper in Ccnnantienii corifib'o fubfequutam Ipfe quoqt abofficio quod in curia prcfiare toiifueuiuacaré mul tacp et uaria quotidie infurgerent quorum nec Fincm nec exltum uUum profpicere ualcbamretuliraeadftudia litterarum tan^ In tranquilliffïniom aliqucm portfi turbationS cúAaj}. Cú(p ibi cuq uetetibus amicis ut inquifCi-idcfi cum libris rediffem in graciam multaç a ffidua Icclione meter Placmt tandé non folum legcndo mibi uerum etiamfcribendoaliisfi quapoifcm prodciTeconari Idenim pcipuum fiudíolòruj mun9putandú <11 ut non ad propriá modo fed comuné utilicatb fiudia rcTerane fuá Itaf Arifiotelís libros qm' de m'oribus fciibunt fuauiifi Haebler 33 ARISTOTLE. EOiica [Valencia P ca. I475P First page 371 HISPANIC SOCIETY other hand, were used to a penmanship similar to Germany's and this heavy character they demanded for their types. It may have afforded the wandering, poverty-hounded Germans bitter amusement that Spain refused Italy's types even as Italy had refused theirs. One of the strongest reasons for believing that the first printers in Spain came by way of Italy is that the earliest books were printed in roman type. The idea of these earliest printers was to reproduce man- uscripts quickly and inexpensively, therefore they took the codices at hand, those of the classic authors. The three Latin parts of Aristotle, the Ethica, Oeconomica, and Política (Haebler 33), finely spaced, without pagination, sig- nature marks, or typographical ascription and in the types known to have been used by Lambert Palmart at Valencia, may be among the first specimens of Hispanic printing, preceding even the Ohres e trobes. The Política (Haebler 35) attributed to the press of Nicolás Spindeler at Barcelona has indications of hav- ing been a chained book. The Arte para bien confesar (Haebler 36/8) is an anony- mous and unique book. It has been reproduced by the Society on cinema film. The Summa de casibus conscientiae by Astesanus of Ast (Gesamt^atalog 2757) printed at Venice in 1480 is exhibited to show Scapha (hilneuiüoms ádffailti fcramnauonpciucbcns. the contrast between contemporary Italian and Spanish printing. It was Hade's, not Brant's, Ship of fools (Stultiferae naues; Haebler 39) which Fa- drique'de Basilea printed about 1501, copying at least six of the cuts from the French edition printed by Thielman Kerver for de Marnef, 1499-1500, as has been proved by Mr. Lyell. So faithfully were these cuts copied, that they Haebler 39 may have been done by cutting through an WOODCUT OF VANITY imposed sheet to the wooden block beneath. The representation of the Folly of Vanity, shown with comb and mirror, seems to have found particular favour in Spain. It was subsequently used about 1530 in López de Yánguez and, in worse condition, in Rodrigo de Reynosa. To the Second roman Group of Antonio de Lebrixa at Salamanca is attributed the little book of Saint Basil (Haebler 44). The Regula (Haebler 46) of Saint Benedict was printed within the monastery walls of Montserrat of the Holy Grail by Juan Luschner, a Saxon working at Barcelona. The Floretus (Gesamt\atalog 4000), in verse, has often been ascribed to the authorship of Saint Bernard of Glairvaux. It was more probably the work of an English poet and grammarian, John Gar- land (Joannes de Garlandia) who died in 1202. This has been considered a unique copy. The Meditationes (Haebler 48) also ascribed to Saint Bernard as author was printed by the energetic Gatalan, Pedro Posa, at Barcelona in 1499. The most important imprint in the Library from many points of view is the leaf of the almost legendary Valencian Bible. Also called, at times, the Limousin Bible (Haebler 49) from having been translated into the literary Ian- guage of Aragón, this is the only Bible known to have been printed on the Penin- 372 ,ñpocalypüe. lE]Pofoanqaíoíe vóiaqodïee cofea.Cpu^ SKs eloeferuinrs ales icoles se tot aqui..., qae ks 1»^' oí«»e vülte icajsui perqueaoo ama e fa mentira .po iefos be tzames lo angd raa T>atianr loe pene cel angéUqm marrana 8 nieo a tefh'ficar aquelles cofesa vofaltresen mi aqoefhs cofes'lE cií|c amisguan» nou fa$ee Ies eglefíes .po fb rad e Unatge ce oauio; flda Beaientfoenrempe ^tneabloefimeeteae refptostmr e matun'na .£ lo (jx» e la fpofa tú p!q>bete8 se ab aquells qui fernen Ies paraules en svine. £ lo qui ousviga vine .£ qui ba fet 0^ propbteia te aqudi Ubre. 3 oeu aocua. £ vinga. £ qm' vol prenga cegrat apgua ce vi / vie ami :noíág;eIte8 Ies paraules oe¡apr<^/ va.Carf4telh'moniatot oíntles paraules da te aqueft libre «Car (o tempe es prop .<2ui cela pzqsbecia ce aqudl libre. 9i algu bauza a nou ntgs encarase qui en lee nit;inró es enfut iuílat a aqlles saiuflaza teu fobze aqll Ies pía/ 3ee^ (tara se qui luíï es fía iulh'fícar encara gues que ibn lentes en aqueíl libre s e fíal^ e lo iánt fía (ànrífïcat encara.l¡reus que vincb bauravimínutttdesparaules tda prc^beda se lo guarto men es ab mis rene a cafcu fe ce aquell libre stoira oen la part te di td libre ¿ons Ies obres fnes'jpo Ib alpba eos primez e ce viva e tda dutat fanctas e ce aquelles coles varrez;pz(ncipi efí.&enauenrarats fon los que fon faites en aquell libre. TDiu bo lo qui qui I«ien Ies fióles foes en la fancb td anpellt tellímoni oona ce aqlles cofes .£ncara. ütíncb perque fía la poteflar ce dis en lo fizíl ce vivas toil samen. Htíne fenpor iefos. La gracia id eper portes entren en la ciutat. IDefora los fenpor noílreiefa crillfía abtote vofaltres cans efotts verle los hqcurtofose losbosnici Smen. Grades infínfoes fien fetes al / omnipotét loen/e fmyoz noftw 3efn crill s e ala bumfl/e fecratíllima verge maria mare fuá. SIcaba la biblia molt vera/e carbólica s treta ce vna biblia cel noble molTen betë/ guer víues ce boil cauallers la qual fon trdlavava ce aquella propria que fon arromaiT^aoa en fó monefh'r ce portacdi ce len^ larína en la no / lira valenciana per lo molr reuereno mícer bonifad ferrer ooctor en ca Icun oret/e en facultar te facra tbeologia s e ten te tota la Caztoca sgez ma od benauenturat fanct vicent ferrer td ozoe te pticatozs sen la qual tranf lado fore/e alrres fíngulars bornes ce Icienda. £ ara oerreramét aquella es llava oiligenrment cozregiva/vifia/e regoneguva per lo reue reomellre jaume borrcU melhe en facra tbeolcgia td ozte te pricaoors t e inquifícor en regne te valida. £s flava empzemptava en la dutat ce valencia a tefpefes od magnifícb en pbiUpvalant mercaoer oda Vila ce jfne te alta 2llamâpas per mellre Sllronlb femiog ce Coroona od Heg/ te Calldla/e per medre lambezt palomar alamâp medre en artos come cava en lo mesa febrer tel anp mil quatrecents fetâftafetteacabaea en lo mes « Mâz$ cd anp Mil. CCCCLXXVIII. 3€l J.: . /¡Ci 'J / ^jf * i ^ ■.iryn SX yxicr.e^íL iin. á/ 711^34 ?:iX' V». n; 3,-» 1.3" 3 f 3 f ■34 Vi í^J/-i¿Tsey¡'.3ort U Haebler VALENCIAN BIBLE Valencia, 1478 Last page with colophon 373 HISPANIC SOCIETY sula during the fifteenth century. The translation was made by a brother of Saint Vincent Ferrer, Friar Boniface, General of the Carthusians and Superior of the Monastery of the Gate of Heaven, near Valencia, As early as 1233, the Bible had been forbidden to the laity by James the Conqueror, and this trans- lation, although approved by Jaume Borrell, inquisitor for Valencia, being in other than the official language of the Church was forbidden to the clergy by the Holy Office in an order of May 2nd, 1498, All copies were to be delivered up to be burned. It seems evident that this work of destruction was well performed. Only portions of two copies escaped. One was in the library at Stockholm when it, with its contents, was destroyed by fire at the end of the seventeenth century. In Spain the book had become forgotten until in 1645 a few leaves were dis- covered in the Cathedral archives. They were presented to Friar Juan Bautista Civera, who sewed one safely into the supplement to his manuscript history of the Monastery of Porta Cceli, Of this leaf he said, in translation: "In the catalogue of authors of this our house, I reported all the works which our venerated father, Don Bonifacio Ferrer, left us. But last year, 1645, in the month of October, there came to my hands four sheets of a superior kind of paper, which a cleric of Valencia sent me, saying that he had found them among other old in the archives of the cathedral. And they were the last leaves of a papers Bible written in the Valencian tongue, translated from the Latin by Father Bonifacio, and printed at Valencia in the year 1478, I was overcome with emo- tion (espánteme) when I saw them, because no one of the many who had written of him (and they were many) had said anything about this, as it had not come their notice.,. It has occurred to me to enclose here the last leaf, because in to it is to be seen the simplicity of the Valencian language at that time, the pro- priety of the version, and the truth of this work being for a space of time in this our house," Civera's manuscript volume disappeared from the monastery, probably dur- ing the Napoleonic Wars; all efforts to find it were futile until it was discovered in Spanish garret and taken to Leipzig in the first decade of the twentieth a century. This sole remaining witness of the Bible comprises the last lines of the twentieth chapter of the Apocalypse and the twenty-first and twenty-second chapters complete, as well as the colophon. The manuscript numeration, 362 and 363, is that of the manuscript. It is interesting to note that the nimbus around the head of Friar Boniface, in the crude portrait attached at the end, has been blotted out with ink and a note added as to its lack of authenticity. Several monographs have been written about this leaf. The title cut of Boccaccio's Cayda de príncipes (Haebler 53), although found in varying forms in books of early date and in Spanish manuscripts, is, according to Mr, Lyell, copied from the pavement of Sienna Cathedral, The obvious allegory. That man whiche hopyth hye up to ascende On fortunes whele and come to state royall If the whele turne may doute sore to descende 374 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS is intensified here by a former owner who has entitled the "I will reign" with the name of the favourite of Philip the Third, the Duke of Lerma. The Morsels of gold {Bocados de oro; Haebler 56) in the same case is attributed to the imaginary Bonium, king of the Persians. It was compiled from the same Arabic sources as Caxton's Dictes and sayings of the philosophers. Escudero, the author of the bibliography of books printed at Sevilla, had never seen a copy of this rare Castilian translation, with the Latin title retained, of Saint Bonaven- ture's Forma noviciorum (Haebler 63). This copy is from the library of José María Nepomuceno. Documents show that six hundred copies of this edition of the Medita- tions on the life of Christ (Haebler 69) at- tribu ted to Saint Bonaventure were printed, but few are known to-day. Although the Haebler 53 BOCCACCIO. Cayda de principes fcntatitia ^mpJcílum.pcr^otáiiej place of printing Sevilla, 1495 Iiiicljucr alamaniini'Sub tnipenfia is not specified, Title-page ciufdein inoiiaftciii.Sniio OBi. 00^ cccíf.ljcjcjcjcvíiij.icvj. inciif SpJilia. the woodcut of the Virgin holding the Child that ©CO— He may saw at the mountains is the device of the monastery at Montserrat. Both Albareda and Lyell consider this the first work printed there. The little treatise by Jacobus Bracellus (1398-1460) on the war between Haebler 69 the Genoese BONAVENTURA. and Al- Mediiaiiones Montserrat. 1499 fonso the Fifth of Colophon with device of monastery Aragón (Hain 3695) is the Huth copy with stamped leather label. This Castilian translation of Caesar's Com- mentar ies (Haebler 113) was made by Diego López de Toledo when he was only seventeen years of age. It is probably the last book in which the "r perruña" was used. The title-page is almost entirely occupied, as is the case with so many old Spanish books, with an escutcheon. This is the often-seen coat of arms of the Catholic Kings, Zo0comcntarioB^ ilarolttíío with the quarterings of Castilla-León and íefaL Aragón- Haebler 113 Sicily and the pomegranate of conquered Granada, CAEISAR. Comentarios Toledo, 1498 displayed upon the eagle of Saint John. The popu- Title-page lar interpretation of the double yoke, the ropes, the sheaf of arrows, and the 375 HISPANIC SOCIETY legend Tanto monta is at variance with contemporary authorities such as Peter Martyr. According to him, Antonio de Lebrixa devised these symbols and their legend which means that it is as great to dominate enemies so that they take the yoke of subjugation willingly as it is to subdue them by force of arms. The two editions of the oldest compilation of rules governing knight errantry (Haebler 124, 126) are rare. Made by the bishop, Alfonso de Santa Maria or de Cartagena (1384-1456) of the fa- mous family of Jewish converts, the copy printed by Fadrique de Basilea, who calls himself in this book Fadrique Alemán, has an exceptionally clear watermark in the blank leaf facing the prólogo. It may be noted that the hand and five-pointed or six- pointed star or fleuron is the watermark most commonly found in Spanish incunabula. The second edition of this Doctrina was the work of Juan de Burgos who seems in some way to have been Haebler 124 connected with Fadrique de Basilea. He may have been a pupil WATERMARK in high standing but without the master's flair. Many of his prod- ucts, as this, are reprintings of earlier editions by Fadrique. The title cut of an armed kneeling knight, swearing allegiance and loyalty to his king was used again, with a side band, in the next century (May 24th, 1505) by another Burgos, Andres, possibly a brother or son of Juan, for the title-page of Livy. Brochures on topics of current interest by prominent persons were the forerunners of newsletters of such reporters as Andres de Al- mansa. Issued by Stephan Plannck at Rome, these two were written by Cardinal Ber- nardino Carvajal. The Sermo (Hain *4549) refers to the victory of the Catholic Kings over the Moors at Baza and the Oratio (Church 3) contains on D°/ 6, lines 16-20 one of the earliest references to the New World. "And Christ placed under their [Ferdinand and Isabel] rule the Fortunate Islands, the fertility of which has been ascertained to be wonderful. And He has lately disclosed &octàiia{M some other unknown ones towards the Indies which may be considered miâdmuattc among the most precious things on earth." The Mozarabic Breviary (Pérez Pastor î)cauaUctfa: Haebler 126 24) is not technically an incunabulum CARTAGENA. Doctrina since it was printed in 1502, but it accom- Burgos, 1497 Title-page panies the Missale mixtum (Haebler 446). Both are books of great importance. The Gothic ritual, revised by Saint Isidore and used by the Christians living under Islamic rule (whence the terms Mixed 376 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS and Mozarabic) had fallen into disuse. Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros revived it and created monuments of typographical art in these two volumes and the Complutensian Bible. Pedro Hagenbach who had printed at Valencia for Jaime de Vila, the Lombardian merchant, administrator of the estate of Hans Rix von Chur, was working at Toledo by 1498. Carrying on Vila's high stand- ards of good paper, clean, unbroken types, good presswork, and careful editorial revision, he was chosen to print these two volumes, with Melchior Gorricio, the editor and "merchant of books" from Italy, bearing the expenses. In respect to this outpouring of laymen's money for church publications, Erasmus, corrector for the expense-ridden printer, Amerbach, and friend of the learned printer, Froben at Basle, knew the other side. To the Archbishop of Toledo, Alfonso Fonseca, he wrote with a percep- tibie emphasis that he could see no reason for it while monks were "fed to go idle" and abbots gXiïdletnímimfecúOum rc were allowed to "build fine mansions, keep gulambedrtSftOoa bíctimt horses, and feast". If these words presage the 8D(^aríibe0» Haebler 446 Reformation, the story of the struggle of the MOZARABIC MISSAL Mozarabic form of worship in preference to Toledo, January 9, 1500 that of Rome is mediaeval. There Title-page were contests of bulls, ordeals by fire and by single combat to obtain a decision. The ordeal by fire is represented in an engraving in the Mexican 1770 edition of the Missal. The Roman codex is being tossed to one side of the blaze, while the Mozarabic, within the heart of the flames, is also unharmed. Thus, diplomatically, was the issue left undecided. Another version is that the Mozarabic codex was tossed aside. The current Alfonso, influenced by Rome and by his queen, returned the book to the fire, and by his action gave rise to the proverb, "Laws conform to kings' desires". Upon the title-page of each volume is seen the cut of the kneeling Saint Ildephonso, patron of Toledo, receiving the chasuble from the seated Virgin. Appearing in books printed by Hagenbach or in those published under the patronage of the Cardinal at Toledo, the cut has been considered a printer's mark. In folio size, printed in gothic type of three sizes in red and black, the Missal had as proof readers Alfonso Rodriguez, Alfonso Martinez, and Jerónimo Gutierrez. The full-page miniature of the Crucifixion made with the "labour- saving device" of a woodcut foundation is noteworthy. Printed slips in the margin call attention to the Roman form of consecration which was to be used instead of the Mozarabic form, taken more directly from First Corinthians XI : 24. Colons printed in black are used, in the ordinary manner of early printed books, as quotation marks; printed in red, they are quotation marks for divine utterances. 377 HISPANIC SOCIETY Both volumes were bound in red morocco with gilt leaf-scroll fillets, glazed, marbled end papers, and gilt edges, probably by Dérôme the younger. They are known to proceed from the collections of Juan de Goyeneche of Navarra, a glassmaker; of Pierre Robinot, confessor of Philip the Fifth and organizer of the Biblioteca nacional at Madrid; of the College of Jesuits at Strass- burg ; of Paul Girardot de Préfond ; of Count Justin de MacCarthy-Reagh, the Scotsman whose father banished him from his native land until such time as Catholicism should be restored; of Hibbert; of H. 1. Perkins "the book-collecting brewer" ; and of Lord Crawford. The Hores de la setmana sancta (Haebler 317) is one of the earliest books in the smaller size. In red and black, with initials filled in by hand, it was printed for Jaime de Vila, prob- ILLUMINATED WOODCUT ably by Hagenbach and Leonardo Hutz, often in older bibliographies spelled Butz. It is in the Valencian language. The other two books. Books of Hours, in this case are printed in the semblance of manu- scripts, on vellum with illuminated initials, miniatures, and borders. That issued at Valencia (Haebler 491) is imperfect as is also that (Haebler 490/5) attributed to the press of Hurus at Zaragoza. The latter was illuminated over the woodcut foundation, more evident in reproduction than to the eye, by a hand or hands uneven in the quality of work. The full-page cut of David with harp laid by, praying to God the Father in a cloud above, is perhaps the best. The borders have leafage, birds, animals, and human figures. Haebler knew of no other copy. Of the three hymnals (Haebler 251, 252 and Sánchez 64) or, more exactly, glosses upon hymns, that attributed to Hurus at Zaragoza is the copy described by Sánchez. It is of interest because of its twenty-four woodcuts. Copied, it may be by Spanish carvers, from Germanic and Netherlandish sources, some are full of detail and crowding, while others are in the outline manner of Lyons, as is the Saint Agatha of signature d^. They were used in other books both in the same century and in the succeeding. The Nativity, signature (J, Sánchez 64 was repro- THE NATIVITY duced by Lyell, who termed it "remarkable". He Haebler knew it only from a book printed in 1520. The prologue was written by Anton4io90/S de Lehrixa. The hymnal printed at Tarragona (Haebler 252) is one of the few books Juan Rosenbach issued in that town and is completed with his mark. 378 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS The Tarragona Missal (Haebler 448), of which no complete copy is known to exist, is imperfect and repaired. The craftsmanship of this book, probably printed by Juan Rosenbach, is of high order as regards both printing and illustration. In 1485, Pablo Hums completed the first edition of the Missal for Zaragoza, a copy of which is preserved in the library of the Cathedral at Zaragoza. It was to serve as a model for missals, for, by reprinting certain sheets, these bulky and expensive service books could be made acceptable to different dioceses. Pedro de Arbués, the subject of the Sermo (Haebler 8) was one of the church officials in charge of the revision, but he had been slain before it was completed. On June 1 st, 1488, Juan Hums reprinted it (Haebler 447) with a new calender, new episcopal letter, colophon, and other slight changes, necessary for the dio- cese of Huesca (Osca) and Jaca, whose bishop was John of Aragón and Navarra, son of the poet-prince, Charles of Viana. It was printed in red and black, in double columns. The woodcuts include an escutcheon, coloured by hand, circles, and full-page plates of the Crucifixion and the Christ in Majesty. The Cruci- fixion is notable; the close-coifed Mother, the delicate hand, the dignified heart- break are portraiture. Whether the artist, German or Spanish, was copying a German original or not, he held in his mind's eye the woman and the bleak, barren hilltop. Less sympathy did he have with John. The Christ figure is awk- wardly placed and unskillfully done. The carver's knowledge of his resources was not extensive. As the final carving, or the plate would have been redone, he copied, from his model, the sacred letters i n r i as he saw them, with the result that they are printed in reverse. The restraint and quietude of the sorrowing Mother form a touchstone for other early Crucifixions. A method of printing music was invented in the 1470's. This Processional according to Dominican usage (Haebler 557) is reputed to be the first book on the Peninsula with printed music. Many letters of indulgence were printed in Spain during the fifteenth cen- tury. This indulgence in Catalan (Haebler 111/4) was issued by Pope Innocent the Eighth in favour of the Monastery of Codoy, considered to be Cadouin in Dordogne. It is attributed to the printer-priest of Lérida, Heinrich Hotel of Saxony. Another indulgence (Haebler 324/5) was exhibited by José Villa-amil y Castro, the historian and bibliographer, in 1892 at Madrid as the oldest remaining example of Galician printing. Beside the Cavalca (Haebler 145) is the celebrated, so-called first edition of the Celestina (Haebler 146), a book of the greatest importance in Spanish literature. This presumably unique copy of the first Haebler 146 attempt at modern drama, which is much INSCRIPTION IN CELESTINA as fiction as drama, was reproduced as number seventy of the Huntington Re- prints. It was thereupon generously presented to Mr. Huntington by its owner, 379 HISPANIC SOCIETY J. Pierpont Morgan, and by Mr. Huntington presented to the Library. The history of this book, the Heber-Soleinne- Rori:ftnfentot)crumat):e(nMi5(fli&oIea amo:?con co:ciiaoefcmp2onio. Baron J. Taylor-Seillière-Bennett-Morgan- kantien» Sowpeonto Huntington copy, is long and involved, both in its literary and technical aspects. Attrib- uted in the main to the authorship of Fernando de Rojas, portions of it were long considered the work of Rodrigo de Cota, in the opinion of those who could speak with authority. Listed among the "vain" books by the learned Vives, edition after edition was and is still printed; ÎlFIeftoveo ¿IDelibea la gran cie5a eoio6.âDe.enquecal< critical essay after critical essay with it or ifto.iCa.enoar pooera nacu« .ra que De câ perfeta l^mofu with certain phases of it as subject has been ra te ootalTe:? fò5eT a mi ime< In r(co tanta merceofi ver te al' printed and still is written. the Library cacalTc? en tancôueniête lu' there are Castilian, one IJgarqmffecretoooIoî twenty-eight English, manl' Êrtar te puDie(re.fm ouoa encôparablementeeo ma' four French, one Latin, and two Italian edi- yoi tal galaroon q cl feruictotfacnftcto: oeuoció % o' efte tions lugaralcançar tegopo a otoa printed before 0:30 piaoque po: 1640, attesting to its wel- ofrefcioo.lHiotropooermivolûtaD Rumana pue* come the and the collec- ce cópl(r.qHfenviooeneftavtDa cuerpo glotificaDo by public exceeding oenmgun t>ób2e como agota el mfo.l^o: cierto loo tion formed by M. Soleinne. One word, only, glojlofoe fanctoe4 fe oeleptá enlawfíon oiutna no Haebler 146 should be said about the sixteen woodcuts. LA CELESTINA Some have been traced by A. W. Pollard to [Burgos P ca. 1499P] Grueninger's Comedies of Terence. Formerly used as separates in different groupings in the manner of stage properties, the Spanish cutter combined two blocks into one. Doteuenefr«rct(0bat^e0, IF^n^qneaiilCDmperbaienA His blocks were used again in the next cen- t fagnu lafupa-ñuícatccka bumo^a cafoiagicaDa : por la qual ee toibadia la lanitat «I The initial coietan'per bttallea loa ene tury for romances and other poems. micba per loe quale ee emparrat lo be romo e la^oei re e "E" also be found in the Sermo of the gneitenê effer atcenate morre.Œ is to perque ftloelRefe e[in cepe ban bauer íülla batâlla:bauem moilrat totee lee ma t Abbot of Aguilar. The book bound by ncree k fer armee e totee lee cofee; per lee was quale paguen ^enpe loe enemícbe.to que tot teu elTer owenatal beco* Chambolle-Duru in 1869. mu e a la pao teleciutadtoe. Car ñ elle entenen en lo be CO mu e pau ale ciutadane; mereireran e obtendrán aquella Two editions (Church 8 and 5) of the letter pau eterna.enlaqnaleemaiorr^ioe.loqualnoltreren'for Islands of teu be p»)mee ale feue fecle, qui ee benett en tote loe fe/ of Columbus on the new-found are glee cteinalmcnt.?lnien. interest to Americans. "Letter from Chris- topher Colom: to whom our age oweth much: d the Islands of the I^efcnda India beyond gracia omnipotent teu ee dat fi ab pxdanlTi / concerning ma e dtuina obra a motal pbilofopbia recoHigida a tot lo Ganges recently discovered. In the search difcote tx etbica Yconomicaepoli&a al Ifbnncep tele pbi/ lofopbe ^llotil/per lo litteratiiïím e reneteno meftre en fa for which he sent, under the auspices and era tbeobgia frare was tEgídi roma al.ow a fanct^gulh/ en •lulgar catala ab algnnee glofee mdlt fped^ pofaae en la at the expense of the most invincible Sover- fi tele eapitolepxnent lo ^able tertnal/ fobte lo qual ee la and Isabella." glofa impieffa en la inlTgna ciutat a barcelona per mellf eigns of the Spains, Ferdinand Tl icolau Ipinaler emptempt30or< a afpefee al ««nerable coma tencDora libtee/ emendar e This letter forms en the second 3oban £3 coaegit g part of the edition lo reuereno mellre ^leir regint lee fcolee en dita ciutat / lo attributed to Basle, the first being dia ce noembre part a fegon Haebler 154 drama, by Carolus Verardus, on the capture of COLONNA. Regiment dels princeps Granada from the Moors. Barcelona, November 2, 1480 Last with The first book of in page colophon any size printed Catalan, this translation of the Latin treatise on statecraft by Egidio Colonna 380 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS (Haebler 154) was printed and signed at Barcelona by Nicolas Spindeler, the printer of the Tirant lo Blanch, who seldom placed his name in colophons. He had first appeared at Tortosa in 1477, then at Barcelona, Tarragona, Valencia, and again at Barcelona, poor and in debt. His patron and faithful friend, Johan ça Coma, the bookseller who is here styled "venerable," twelve years later, was to be burned in effigy at an auto defé of the Holy Office and his estate was to be sequestered. In Sanpere's estimation his sin consisted in having an estate worth confiscating. The Castilian translation (Haebler 156) is the copy from the library of the Marquis and Señor of Liédena. The Garden of high-horn maidens by Martin Alfonso de Córdoba is a rare book, Haebler (169/10) having known of no other copy than this which proceeds from the libraries of Josef Colón of Càceres and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the statesman. Printed by Juan de Burgos removed from Burgos to Valladolid, this first edition is dedicated to Queen Isabel: "Certain persons. My Lady... have considered it a misfortune when a kingdom or other government falls to the administration of women. But l...am of the contrary opinion." Stately and impressive in their size and gothic type are the chronicles, whence came much of Spain's ballad material or where the ballads themselves were embedded as in amber. These chronicles pertain not only to actual kings and national heroes, but no less so to Florisel de Niquea, to Amadis de Gaula, to the Knight of the Cross. Often with creation as the starting point, with long, rambling sentences which, by supplying punctuation either here or there, may be inter- preted almost as the reader wishes, with legends interspersed in the history and facts mingled in the fiction there is little to choose between the real and the imaginary in the early chronicles. Both have, at times, an arresting minuteness of detail as in the description in the Crónica del Rey Don Rodrigo (Haebler 174) of the English Prince Henry and the Spanish Princess Belinda, which betokens accurate observation, although both the dashing Crónica (jnuy ardid, y de [Sevilla P] 1499 gran mesura tal que bien d'mosiraua Title-page donde venia) Henry and the amenable Belinda seem otherwise unknown to history. This, the Sir Henry Hope Edwardes copy, of the first edition of the chronicle relating the conquest of Spain by the Moors is con- sidered unique. The first edition of the Chronicle of Kings Peter, Henry, and John (Haebler 38) was written by the courtier, Pedro López de Ayala, who served four kings, Peter the Cruel, Henry of Trastamara, John the First, and Henry the Third. Covering the period of the author's own life (beginning in 1350 where the Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh leaves off and ending in 1396), it is probably the first authentic history of Spain. Haebler 174 381 HISPANIC SOCIETY The woodcut on the title-page of the Castillan translation of Curtius Rufus (Haebler 186) is identical with that of the Crónica del Rey Don Rodrigo (Haebler 174). This book is from the library of Jacques-Auguste de Thou, the historian, 1589, with his escutcheon impressed in gilt on the cover. It is the third of his super-lihris and incorporates the arms of his second wife, Gasparde de la Chastre. Codification of the laws began with Saint Ferdinand in the Setenario. About 1256, his son, Alfonso the Tenth, took over the task, with Las siete partidas as the result. They little resemble the statutes of to-day. The Catholic Kings in their turn spent much effort in printing compilations of laws, while in the time of their great-grandsons, the Philips, there was a flood of pragmáticas on all sub- jects. As has been noted, two editions of the Partidas—the seven parts of which so begin as to make an acrostic, intentional or otherwise on the name Alfonso: A servicio de Dios La fé católica Fizo nuestro Señor Dios Onras señaladas Nascen entre los onbres Sesudamente dixerñ Olividanza et atrevimiento were printed in 1491. They had been edited by the jurist, Alfonso Diaz de Montalvo, who compiled these Ordenanças reales (Haebler 220) which had many editions. This is the Gallardo-Cánovas del Castillo copy with contem- porary binding and manuscript notes. Valladolid, where they were wedded in 1469, received much patronage from Ferdinand and Isabel, which indirectly was responsible for the establishment of its with that press. The Royal Monastery of Nuestra Señora del Prado shared of San Pedro Mártir at Toledo the privilege of printing bulls and indulgences. It is recorded that at one time the Valladolid monastery issued yearly about three and a half million letters of indulgence and bulls for the crusades against the infidels. Johan de Francour or Froncourt or, as Haebler surmised, John of Franckfurt, was the second printer. His types, however, resemble French styles rather than Germanic. This Notas del Relator, who was Fernando Diaz de obîa fuetmpitiêi poimaeftrejob^in De francour en fa mny noble I mup leal billa De ballaDoliD a quatro Dtas Del meo De ^n^ lio^^no Del najimienfo De tiiieftro faluaDoi 3beftt cbufto De milb ) quatrojtentoo i nouenta itreo afioo» Haebler 225 DIAZ DE TOLEDO. Notas Valladolid. July 4. 1493 Colophon Toledo (Haebler 225) was the last book printed by Francour. It was based, as it states, on an earlier 1490 Burgos edition which is now unknown. Apparently an unicum, Floranes, who had a copy, possibly this, gave its bibliographical de- 382 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS scription to Méndez. Haebler and Alcocer, the bibliographer of books printed at Valladolid, copied it and have not seen the book. ^ Theological discussion involving the ^umcrc»cl08/oina«t5iqhp»te Immaculate Conception was of great 2taic9totpuneto«le^coqmlto ^ tise by Fernando Díez (Haebler 228), ¿/J distinguished by his fervent devotion, ^ was printed by Lambert Palmart. Im- apparently lacked the first AUTOGRAPH OF ANTONIO DE LEON PINELO leaf when it was in the possession of the New-World-born bibliographer, Antonio de León Pinelo, since his autograph, which in other books in the Library invariably appears on the verso of the title- page, here appears on signature aij. Spanish books on veterinary science are of especial interest, inasmuch as in the Society's unique copy of a book by a humble, Zamoran farrier, Francisco de la Reyna (Li^ro de albeytena. Burgos, Philippe de Junta \ca. 1560]) appears the first printed notice of the body's circulatory system. Exhibited is the first printed book on alhdteria, by Manuel Díez (Haebler 206). It is said that the manuscript original in Catalan was written as early as 1323. This Castilian ver- sion is by Martin Martinez Dampiés. Señor Manuel Serrano y Sanz, who expressed the results of his researches in La imprenta de Zaragoza es la mas antigua de España (Zaragoza, 1915), be- lieved that Heinrich Botel was the anonymous printer known as the "Printer of the Torquemada." Doctor Haebler and Father Lambert (JLes origines de Vimprimerie à Saragosse {1473-85). Madrid 1915), on the other hand, deem him Pablo Hums who had arrived at Zaragoza from Barcelona as early as October 22nd, 1476. On this date he contracted with Heinrich Botel to print and sell the Laws of Aragón, printed in the types of the "Impresor del Turrecremata." In 1479 Botel departed for Lérida. It is precisely during the period when no mention can be found of Hums, 1476-1485, that the so-called Printer of the Torquemada was active. Therefore to him may be ascribed the Epistola de morte Jheronimi (Haebler 249) of Eusebius, bishop of Caesaria in Palestine. The book begins with this full-page woodcut of Saint Jerome. This imperfect copy of the Libre de les dones EUSEBIUS. Epistola (Haebler 706) by Francesch Eximeniç was printed [ Zaragoza ^ ca. 1480 ? ] at Barcelona by Juan Rosenbach of Heidelberg Woodcut of Saint Jerome on May 8th, 1495, at the expense of Johan Bernat. One of Spain's peripatetic printers, between the time of his first appearance in 1490 and his last on February Haebler 249 383 HISPANIC SOCIETY 7th, 1530, Rosenbach had issued books in many places under several interest- Cígyíicíujabfomtumípbocprfcla printer's marks. The Valencian translation of the rumatcg (nffgneopaa -paesrine, Contempt for the world (Haebler 294) by the great mano.ato opera et tmpenfte Xa3ari oegajaniarfocioiikp. Impieflus French mediaeval theologian, Jean Charlier de p Gerson, no04^aroû vngut alemanú. et was in the etaniflaú by Spindeler, polonfi focíoe tl·lnno printed probably possibly in/ camatiófa falutifcre.^Occcepcpii;. types of Hans Rix vonChur, inherited by Jaime deVila. oie vero Picefimo mtfía iDttéb:i0. The Peregrina of Bonifacio Garces (Haebler 73) awakens a curious feeling of vague familiarity. This consciousness is produced by the red printers' mark which, minus one bar and with two other initials added, is used by a present-day baking company as its trade- mark. It has long been known that the wooden block for the Legend of the (IECrf0la8Paia8 printed title in two lines. It CnclCOntCOi^aS* noted that the apothecary abbreviations Haebler 315 for recipe, ounce, and scruple are those still in use SPANISH PRINTING PRIVILEGE United States. It has been thought, because this book is the first in Spain to bear a printing privilege, the forerunner of the copyright, that Melchior Gorricio who bore the expense of printing it may have brought the innovation with him from Venice where it was already in use. Bernardo Boil, the hermit of Mont- serrat, who is accredited with having celebrated the first Mass in the New V lOvll-ylQlTv World, made a Catalan translation of Haebler 32s De relilione (Haebler 325) by the Abbot s. a H8, Isaac, bishop of Stella. It was issued Title heading without name of printer at Sanctus Cucufatus vallis Aretane on November 29th, 1489. The place has been iden- tified by Father Fidel Fita as San Cugat near Barcelona. Haebler's theory is that the printer was Pablo Hurus, who at this period was not printing books at Zaragoza. Hijar, in the province of Teruel, was mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy. Of the four incunabula known to have been issued in this town, the Society ex- hibits a copy of the second, the Yoreh Deah (Haebler 329) of Jacob ben Asher of Toledo, which is likewise the second of the four books containing the rabbinical code. This printing company lasted only five years, until 1490, when the printers, Jews or converts, fled before royal and ecclesiastical decrees into Portugal. "For a long time," to quote Haebler in translation, "there was much discussion over the place, where these books were printed. Formerly we believed it to be an Italian town, but the Hispanic form of the rabbinical characters proves its Spanish origin, and now we do not doubt that it should be interpreted as Hijar, in olden times written Hixar and then pronounced with greater sib- ilancy... The name of the printer is not known to us other than by the verses at the end of the [this] book finished in 1487. The first book, also, has its typo- graphic information in a long verse added at the end of the text. In it, however, only the date is given, the place and name of the printer being omitted; both facts are found in the verses of 1487, the name of the town in the text itself and the name of the printer in an acrostic of the first letters of each verse, Elieser ben Alantansi. Another detail about the books from this office is that they all carry the printer's mark in one of two forms, either a single lion, rampant, or 386 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS this same lion struggling with a horse. It is always stated in the verses that this is the mark of the printer. The book where we find the greatest amount of information about the origin and the press of Elieser is the Pentateuch, finished ■ in the month IM» bjttljip v»ií'Tí>>7Pí'to"> ■»'í»|'PAlncsjs>aj/>ny^on' ¡iwa?' of Av (July to August), 1490. In ¡sJíK)i·«i»x^·»7re>ríp·»W'BwJc«>'WpJ'í pTpio:ípJbWt;potcc it we find, at the end, three groups t«-O>PíPlp©Sl^^pJ»J)|^JV'?l'V»J)7íP0t)>»Jcj'TOCJcPJj):PJ}'Wh'7R5JCa»38 of the the 5WW¡p?y«B7aipÉ)i • first ri»yiP.P7PH*jrücpi·epcoc;»'!ÍJirp·j·rwf>jocpi"oil0 verses, gives name < oiiíti' oi'íü'isftlpljípcf'k-pe^ jpaTpoB of a Salomon who was the pro- ;pp7«CTí'jimfepp777j ' eJiPrtDÜDC^Biej moter of the publication, the sec- CP^ pppp ond that of Salomon ben Maimón «PCPpOTTO o«p;» jiJnj -tte eçj» BPIÍ'PlIipj jmyxtifo ÍI7PPTWÍJ jww v>h nts JDW 771CÍÍ expenses of the CDDPKi'j '-7PTP ti Jpeto PPO SjJDtpJíA printing, and the third that of epwjeIJPÍ I9Î3P11jnp pw pm» ~TVW 5»* Abraham ben ben opcfjj^rpj lyiDiPvtùp pjnpp Isaac David, Pf>^ ~RPMi»ííjj m) ctea j-ipntn yiTOPwrt JTKb CPPt corrector of the book and, at the GPMW» CJ2PI cop-j® ta «P75P b Ifi C7»D,n jr¡n C/.jpj BirPI PvJe 7i*fii same time as it seems, the author ísxÍDG jpipibisp ipjpjUPip B® JTCij of the verses, not only of the Pen- tm PR7I osncfi [i7Pc| "TPabpJbfl çwtírJbiíí íptíJPTO tateuch, but also of the other books nstfi fffp EPij» ojpí EPPPJl^ 7>ot3 fnp *• ft an' published in this office. The ■ most aav jnb—tpio Jiibwejsjlp r# BP)2P(V7() P7i7j OTÍJJ interesting, .77»! OTWp J9 to us, of the three is 13 CTWtoíJI ompror» ppîîpplf'^J» PPÏ7 toJiií» b««)IP7áÍ* Salomon ben Maimón Zalmati, lanb I29)7t> WW pjiia "TTII^P^ pví Pto> whom "Taoi we have P73I already met at ppé ppw EIOJ m "«TOPci»r "PpITP ppwtoajp ~*7»tvAg Valencia and tjífr there, also, concerned with printers and booksellers. We recall in addition that he it was whom Alfonso Fernandez de Cór- doba in 1483 called his chief, Haebler 329 and who in that BEN ASHER. Yorek deah same JACOB year was Hijar, 1487 admitted into the company which Last page with printer's mark this printer made with Gabriel Luis Arinyo to print the works of the 'Bishop', that is to say, of Jaime Pérez de Valencia. In 1490 Salomon ben Maimón was called exiled from his country and this fact agrees very well with his presence, already mentioned, at Murcia and Valencia. "As in those places, here in Hijar he is more publisher-editor than printer. But he was Fernández de Córdoba's employer, and that as regards printing books, for which Córdoba, who was a silversmith, made new types. In view of all this, it seems very likely that the beautiful and well-designed types of the books published at Hijar were the work of the Christian silversmith whom we found, far from his native city, under condemnation of death and in the services of the Hebrew bookseller, Salomon ben Maimón. "It is certain that the types of the books printed at Hijar are outstanding in their beauty. Elieser, as Salomon ibn al-Kabiç, did not use vowel markings; 387 HISPANIC SOCIETY he possessed four founts of type of different sizes, of which three are square and the fourth of rabbinic form. In some of his products, the printing is in three columns, each of a different size type and with the rubrics in a fourth and largest size." There is no doubt, to judge by the examples in the Society, that Tolosan book makers knew how to present a vivid story through a succession of pictures. This Castilian translation of the His- ioire de Mélusine by Jean d'Arras (Desbarreaux- Bernard p. 74) was printed by Juan Parix and Esteva Cleblat, alemanes. It may be that the cuts were copied from the original French edition of 1478 and these were copied by Preuss. In the cut repro- duced here, Geoffrey of the Great Tooth is causing the Abbey of Malleres, which he had burned, to be rebuilt. The bustle and the discussion, in which Desbarreaux p. 74 the mortar mixer is JEAN D*ARRAS. Historia unduly interested, are en- Tholosa, July 14, 1489 tirely evident. But Parix, or Paris, the printer, Woodcut has another and much greater significance—that of having been the first printer in Spain. In the opinion of Father Lambert, Parix was working at Segovia between the years 1476 and 1478 and possibly as early as 1472. A copy of one of the books on which Father Lambert bases his belief is in the Library. It is the Comentaría in sinholum quicunque mil by Pedro de Osma, the "first Spanish Protestant," signed by Magister Johannes Parix de Heydelberga, as printer. Heresy was never akin to Spanish blood, and Father Lambert suggests that through his connection with Osma, evil may have come upon Parix and made it wise for him to cross the borders into France. Whatever the reason, Parix was working at Toulouse alone in 1479, later with Cleblat. The two books by Saint Jerome Zimos grcfc latino Fcanctum.vndeaji nomínibu$ dicícur cfTc ^poficú (d. 420), Lives of the saints, of inus.a.um.pcópoIicionem.£.íincti9 pu ro.magifler Babel jfpric B^bilonúm ío are rus fino formero ab a et ^ímos nat'i.iftc magífler de B íbáonía.ín Ba rarity. Sanchez described the Zio ucl ^us dicícur melis Mafus bíloníacnímortuseíf vbicc great Princeps Zton cerca vera gcntis ludcc cxcícic attributed to Zaragoza (Haebler Zi:^aparium fpés aidorís Zoticus. a. um. i. uícalis one Zíjena perca Zo^imus. a.um. viuax ucl v iuídus. 335/5), and the other, printed at Zinjala paru.i mufca.r.rultx Zucarum.TÍ.uclbcc Rucara.e.i.fucre Zin:^ahirxum cancpcum ad cas arrédas Salamanca (Haebler 336), is the factum Zin^çibec-rts.n.rpés aromática eíl imperfect Salva-Heredia other- Zt n:^ínarc pa rdorum «ff Prcíens buíusComprcÍJcníóríí pfccia/ copy, Zí^ania e.ticlboc^jíjaníuiç.n.regcs uF TU m opus Vaicntíe i mpíTum. A nno.M. wise unknown. bnba puerta, f. lolmecponit<^uâdocp ÇCCC.Lxxv. Die vcro'Xxiií.menfis pro fordeomníum fcgetura Febroarii/finie fcLícitcr* The adjacent book is, on the Zodiagtecclacíncanimaliauel figna Zodíaccus.a.um.ad :^odiacum pcinens other hand, well known. It is the Zodíacus.ci.animal circuí? uel lignifcr quia in eo Cune «xíf. figna nomíníb9ani first book printed on the Iberian Haebler 339 Peninsula COLOPHON OF bear JOHANNES to an undisputed date of publication. It is the Comprehensorium (Haebler 339) of Johannes, who may have been the Majorcan grammarian, Johannes Pastrana, the predecessor of Antonio de Lebrixa. In the same types as the Obres e trobes, a small collection of poems, in the vernacular, which has long had the honour of being considered 388 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS the first book printed in Spain, both books have been generally attributed to Lambert Palmart as printer, inasmuch as in 1477 he signed a book printed in these same types. However, it is true that the plague raged at Valencia from the last days of April or the first days of May 1475—the year of the Compre- hensorium—until March 1476 and may have wiped out this first printing estab- lishment and its operators, both of which, in Doctor Haebler's opinion, had been imported and supported by Jacob Vizlant, German merchant resident at Valencia. If, as seems almost certain, printing, after this book and one other of July thirteenth, along with all businesses and professions lay supine at Valencia during the long months of the bubonic plague, it was revived in a creditably short time thereafter. In less than a twelve- month from the plague's cessation, Fernán- dez de Córdoba and Palmart had begun work on the Valencian Bible. The Josephus (Haebler 344) is the Miguel KETHAM. Epílogo en medicina 1495 José Moreno Burgos, copy. Title scroll The Epílogo en medicina (Haebler 246), with its title-page in white lettering on a black scroll in a "sgraffito manner," is the Castilian version of a popular medical work ascribed to the German physician Johannes Ketham. The first anatomical charts printed in Spain, they are quite different from those usually associated with this book. Six of the woodcuts (three folded) are based, apparently, upon the Latin edition published at Venice by Johannes and Gregorius de Gregoriis on July 26th, 1491. Trechsel at Lyons, with whom Fadrique de Basilea had commerce, was also a publisher of medical works. It may be that through him, Juan de Burgos, the publisher of this book who, as has been mentioned, was closely linked with Fadrique, obtained a copy of the Venetian edition for the unknown translator and the equally unknown cutter. Of the Venetian cuts, M. E. Piot said, in trans- lation, "The first [of the five anatomical plates] are very crude. It is evident that the designer was betrayed by the inexperience of the cutter. Nevertheless, even under his constant clumsiness, it is easy to recognize in the design as a whole, the strength of line and the certain air of grandeur which characterise more particularly the influence of Andrea Mantegna upon the Venetian mainland artists, that is to say, those of Padua, of Vicenza, and of Haebler some other localities." 246 Whoever the designer may have been, it is likely that he had the representation in the cal- endar of the then popular Books of Hours in mind for his Astronomical Man (d°/X1). The original for the Consultation (text cut on /II) has not been Haebler 246 found. From this cut, ancestor of consultation or a common both, was a similar cut made for the edition which Brocar printed at Pamplona on October 10th, 1495. 389 HISPANIC SOCIETY Back again and yet again, does one come to Fadrique de Basilea, alemán, or reversed, Fadrique Alemán de Basilea, the first printer in the cathedral town of Burgos. For many years, some thirty, he worked there using types resembling those of many places, Valencia, Zaragoza, Lyons, Strassburg, and Paris. His books are remarkable for their beauty of execution and of decoration. Of his output for these years, the Library possesses fifteen signed and nine attributed examples. His initials are, perhaps, his most outstanding feature of beauty. One set (A, E, H, L, M, N, P, Q, S, T, U) with great depth of suggested colour is signed with the initial "H" of whom nothing further is as yet known. A. F. Johnson reproduces twelve letters of a twenty-four- letter alphabet engraved on copper by Israhel von Meckenem, a gold- smith working at Bocholt in West- Haebler 20lbis Haebler 494 phalia. According to him, Peter SIGNED INITIALS USED BY Wagner of Nuremberg was the first FADRIQUE DE BASILEA (1483-1500) to use woodcut copies of this set. In whatever manner Fadrique acquired von Meckenem's or Wagner's designs, it is reasonable to suppose that he had "H", his Spanish carver, copy them. They bear a distinctly Spanish type of hatchwork on the leaves instead of the white strapwork or the Italian style of a central vein and tendrils, and, may it be said with no disrespect to von Meckenem, they are more robust and vivid than the metal-engraved originals. The design for the "P" of this set came, in the opinion of the late Foulché-Delbosc, from Guerbin at Geneva, through Arnoullet at Lyons. Back of the highly decorative cuts in de Li's Reportorio de los tiempos (Haebler 201 bis) are the illustrations of the seasons in the French Books of Hours and the Florentine borders not often found in Spain. These cuts, or copies of them, were later used in Portugal. Based upon the almanac of Granollachs, printed at Zara- goza in 1488 by Hums, as well as in Italy, the first edition of this rifacimenio by de Li was also printed again by Hums in 1492. Fadrique's edi- ;0ctub2e l?a.OT.Dia9.i la lun3.jcj:ir. Haebler 20lbis tion, of which the Society possesses the only re- LI. Reporlorio corded but incomplete copy, is therefore the Burgos, May 21. 1493 second of a long list of reprintings. Text cut Another book by Andrés de Li and also illustrated is the Thesoro delà passion sacratissima de nuestro redemptor (Haebler 200) issued by Hurus at Zaragoza on October 2nd, 1494. The title-page cut represents the crucified Christ as Saviour of the world. The figures of kneeling monks and scourging men with the legend. Oración, used in this book instead of paragraph marks, is a pleasing innovation and one not otherwise found in Spanish incunabula. In this book is found the signed Crucifixion. Pollard ascribes a cut of 1490 printed at Lyons 390 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS by Leroy to an I. D., conjectured to be a Jean Dalles, and he says that the work of Dalles "though lacking in charm, is neatness itself". Lyell reproduces this cut ^ , from an edition of the Chronicles printed at Logroño traCarío^n'Sr^ in 1517 and calls 1. D. "one of the master ptoî^mae Spanish woodcutters, and one of the few whose work ftrojcfj. definitely identified" without, however, refer- giojiofo ring him back to the fifteenth century. Lpucoanteqpaocoe _ i i • • i i irco/tc plugocon tu Zamora lays claim to a printer not elsewhere ración maiufeftara known. He is Antón or Antonio Centenera, a native, lvwro^ra/?oc who in this Castilian text with a Latin title, the Vita lup^cn Muccon beata (Haebler 368) of Juan de Lucena, signed himself SSsupîStcft Centenera. The book is concerned with the imaginary f^rolxîc^mcîfi discussions on The happy lije by three of the most gioQucc8po;vemr^o^^cnd( eminent men of the time of John the Second, namely, li. Thesoro Juan de Mena, Alfonso de Cartagena, and the Mar- Zaragoza, October 2. 1494 qujg of Santillana. Chapter indicator pf qJ Chtist by the Carthusian, Ludolphus of Saxony, were translated into Castilian by Montesino and by Joan Roig de Corella into Catalan, but they were issued at different places and in different years. The second volume (Lo segon del Cartoxa; Haebler 375) was probably printed by Valencia's last fifteenth-century printer, Cristóbal Cofmán, Xpofal Koffmâ, alema de Basilea, or Chris- tophorus de Basilea, as he is variously known. His name has been considered the Spanish adaptation of the German word, Kaufmann. Pedro Posa, the printer of the Ars breüis (Haebler 379) of Ramón Lull was a native Catalan of much energy. He was an ecclesi- astic and also a bookseller. According to Peers, the student of the Illuminant Doctor of Ma- jorca, this little brochure is a summary of his Ars generalis ultima, which "during the four centuries" since its completion has "enjoyed an outstanding popularity". Juan de Mena (d. 1456) was the official court poet of Isabel's literature-loving father, John the Second. Mena's chief work is this allegory, the Laberinto, popularly known as the Trescientas, and here called Coblas. Leg- end has it that to the original three hundred (trescientas) stanzas. Mena added sixty-five that the King might read stanza signed woodcut so one every night of the year. This copy, the only one recorded, is from the collection of Antonio Canovas del Castillo, contains his bookplate, and was consulted 391 HISPANIC SOCIETY by Señor Juan Manuel Sánchez for his Bibliografía zaragozana (Sánchez 16). One of the least rare of Hispanic incunabula is the book on heraldry, the Nobiliario (Haebler 411) of Fernando Mejia. £obl9s èc^itan Written, as Ticknor said, in "an age that believed beZl^ene. in the inherent qualities of noble blood," it was printed at Sevilla by Pedro Brun, who had worked Sánchez l6 MENA. Cohlas at Barcelona with Pedro Posa, and Juan Gentil, Zaragoza, May 8, 1489 who may have belonged to the well-known family Title heading of Genoese merchants trading with Sevilla, the Gentiles. The copy on exhibition bears the autograph of Juan Enzinas, a poet of the sixteenth century, and a ^ note by Juan del Corral to the Cítíb2ó)n titülatio nobilmfíopetfcta effect that this book cost him mente cop^l^Ootozoenaoopozelori thirty-two reales at Zaragoza of rraoo caiiallcro^femntD^Ê^epa ve^n-í? Aragón on June 29th, 1645. Del te Ut Corral was himself a student of qiiatfooe Saben Haebler 411 Nobiliario heraldry and the author in 1610 MEJIA. Sevilla. June 30. 1492 of a Nobiliario. Title heading The books of Nicolaus de Plove (Haebler 51, 5Ibis) are admittedly libri rariores, but it must also be admitted that that inherent fascination is far outdistanced by the fascination connected with the printer, Arnaldo Guillen de Brocar (Arnaldus Guillermus de Brocario). He was the first printer at Pam- piona and its sole printer during the fif- teenth century. At Alcalá de Henares dur- ing the years 1514-17, he was to execute for Cardinal Jiménez the Complutensian Bible (Bessón. Biblias españolas en la Per (jgnncrnasdeínítn/ds noftrístlibcranosdoí Hispanic Society of . nUnedcHsnofter. À America 2), the six- volume work which was to place him with the outstanding printers of all centuries. Glimpses of him as a fine and great man are found in ^SS^^SSSSlÂsgSiISSlSff.rSSi'SSsm the biographies of the Cardinal, and other sug- Catalina 26 MARKS USED BY gestions are afforded ARNALDO GUILLEN DE BROCAR by his baffling printer's marks. From the mark used here, he went on to more elaborate devices, one of which bears a kneeling figure in the upper portion. If Mr. Davies, the author of 392 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS Devices of the early printers 1457-1560 (London, 1935), was correct in his surmise that the kneeling figure represents the printer himself, then it is probably the earliest authentic woodcut portrait in the Library. The legends of these devices proceed from the hopeful In hoc signo vinces to the prayerful Per signü crucis de inimicis nostris: libera nos domine deus noster, to the vengeful Inimici hominis domestici eius. He was sue- ceeded by his son, Juan de Brocar. Beside this book by Brocar lies the Oliveros de Castilla (Haebler 494) by another master craftsman, Fadrique de Basilea, who attempted book illustration on a much larger scale than any other Hispanic printer of the century. He is the one printer of his time nauèlosnobles with an understanding of his present and caualierosoliue with an outlook towards the future. When, within the short space of some five years, Germany was discarding her simple inher- rosoecaftiUa:^^* itance for the Renaissance, Fadrique was artiisTJialsarbe. alive to his opportunities and carried into Haebler 494 OLIVEROS DE CASTILLA. Historia the still Gothically loyal Spain the German- Burgos, 1499 ically outgrown cuts, for it is certain that Title-page the cuts themselves or cuts in books, and not original drawings, were his working models. Realizing his lonely position in Spain, he conceived the idea of appealing to other classes than the clergy and the nobility, while not sacrificing their sup- port through slovenly workmanship or inferior material. To the many illiterate for whom the money from the New World was beginning to flow, he offered his books, as the Celestina, the Ship of fools, and the Oliveros de Castilla, with their distinctly story-telling pictures. Always in touch apparently with Lyons (in 1552, Philip the Second was to forbid Spaniards attending its fairs) where romances of chivalry were popular. Fa- drique ventured upon this Castilian translation of the anonymous histoire de Olivier de Castille et de Artus dalgarhe written possibly by David Aubert in Latin, revised and translated into French by Philippe Camus. The first edition in French had been printed at Geneva in 1492 by Louis Guerbin, using most of the woodcuts al- ready used in his edition of Les sept sages de Haebler 494 WOODCUT OF SCRIBE Rome. Although woodcuts were often of such general character that they could be used to il- lústrate different subjects, it would seem that this set was too specific to be used for the Oliveros, but in like manner these two romances follow so similar a pattern 393 HISPANIC SOCIETY of events that one set of cuts befits both equally well. Fadrique's cutter went to work, copying forty of the forty-one cuts. The fleur-de-lis on the tent of the English king is a bit unusual to our eyes, but, perhaps then as now, to the Spanish all outlanders were "franceses." The coat of arms above the ambry {armarium) of the scribe has been changed from the double-headed eagle of the original cut to the castle of Castilla; the copyist, as usual, could not allow his hand to add details his Spanish eyes were not accustomed to see. No facsimiles of Guerbin's initials and cuts are available in the Library.The letter "A," as given by Baudrier from the shop of Jacques Arnoullet at Lyons, may well be of this set since Arnoullet is said to have obtained possession of the woodcut stock of the Genevan printer, either through loan or purchase. Most certainly from Arnoullet's original did Fadrique have the grotesque initial "L" copied for the title-page. The cut of the scribe had been used in 1498 by Fadrique and was used as late as 1541. Exceedingly rare are all romances of chivalry, having been censured by clergy and scholars as vain and pestiferous even before the days of Cervantes in Spain and Barros in Portugal. Saint «HccKaed «reliatMmiàDiJI oilro C2li^baiirnôobteinpat;frdrccâ]tpre ^ ,j .. . I lU Rcfiffc&irascópnméiacrcricíperii cq>na»Jtnumadiaabi.i]lapiai.njmai& year 1521. Admiral Carthusian, is in the !Lljn«riaquaiua ncfinolafolabonoioe eaualleria tot exposition the Trocadéro, Paris. In .é mee auant eonquilla linipe at ría mare fuá fciirona noftra ri gr«b cobrant lo ocio turcbe q bauicn lur txiint 1887, it passed into the hands of book- comcca la leira Dipict líbrela oquell fubiugaia la pcllat Cirár ¡oblácbrpind ntocloerillíanogrecbo .Sc^i rita bfnoria CQCtceriel oii. sellers, whence it was acquired in 1900. Dap moífé Joanot nia'torell fien en IcnguaangUratca voltra f eaualler ai leréiífimo ccp illullra fenrotia fia llat grat voler In 1904, a facsimile prí edition, dedicated Don fer oeporiogal. me pregar ta ranoo girtaren lengua potr togueía opinant pcrpoellcrltat / to Señor Bonsoms, was issued in the algontípe cn!fluUc>bat ablo primitiu original tions of Toulouse, 1489, Sevilla, maoco pc acte oe cort fen ajuocn epii;cen a oleo oel tmllac ocl oicbiu ocla fala fuoar e alegrar loe fingularo oír oe va^ncia miga braç per acteocla cort. £ fi feran çantlctra/oemolfcleta empremta; txrlo a/ 1526, and Sevilla, 1538. prefent fora cort fen a{uoen fen alegren bumiljambert palmart alamany.f vltra rorgaoeo c loooito bi ba en laoíta forma fora la core. mto alguno norableerc vrila Alfonso Tostado de Madrigal acceeoccort/eprouifionore/alo: fon acá/ q 'Ba84moe3or&inatio batooecopiar oifouofanct quartoiaoca (d. 1455) bishop of "chill Avila". neo et acruo ego oictuo fecretari/ bríloelanjroelafclíciffima natiuitatoepo/ was tto 1 norartuo publicuo : t^i firí ftf filtro: reoepcorcfiiluaooríefucrifiil^. C{/ * et fcrfba curie qg^attccento buytantaootfrocQueee iRŒ Said to have written three notarfuo sheets procefTuo fupraofc -ío; te oefcr ibi feu reponi feci in proccffu ttcfitor/ëaciuatiním íollidtaoor loboi^. eooem manoatooicti wmihi regie. 6ure c Difcmen fuemnt {g^rlellajro oeatin/o notari _ for every day of his life, it is least peroictû oominû e nauamlo dotooa eifent at acta ac regem tufiída ocla ciutat oe ^lalS cûtenentZgeneralem da en lo duil fino promulgara erpubl^ en fiima oc trcfcíro íí^o. true that he the author of cari manoata fiu manoato oictioomini.it was gio oiaa generali curia approbante babita •Seo gracias. pro lecn'o in oicra oomo books, them this large capituli feofovaU many among de vU cfdi (Uni (debiamt olc «note In titulata prima |oIij paulopofi tactum vnoe two-volume commentary on Saint cime bore nocrio copienoo numenmi ab bo nmcriold ânoanatiiilca»oi!(,]lb.(nc. Matthew (Floreium sancii Maiihaei; OT-too-R«0nfc|5olrti oomWttgtendi' lie dtra faïuni amioouc«ecimo. lllioram Haebler vero 388). tegnorum:anno.X]7cda mOnadOM niifni . The books of Lambert .- . Palmart, cpojlctMñ.tñm£íondíiraluBsarfíáBcfcfa^aría:cítié£cP3ug of Zaragoza. Appentegger disappears; Hutz ílluftríflimí ac ríucrcdttTímí Pñl Hlfonlï &c Hragonía: cíufdé admíníftratoíts aduocatn. in 1503 arcbíepatup 6P«tu( is working with Coci, in 1505 is back 3mp:circ ín jnlígne cfuttate £cfau^ultana: per Sffcrd toe et vfroe ac fídclce foctoo cocft in Valencia. For forty-seven years Coci, pciitod -fVeorgmtn Iconardúbut?:-: iwpwn app&eggct ^mímcc «ai whose is the rionie.QiK.fuemnt fiíni(c:vlduía d!c mciilVeBp;r.te name possibly Spanish adap- aiwofalurte^illefHnoquíRíjCtitefutio. tation of the German, Koch, carried Haebler 165 on, ZARAGOZA. Consliluliones being the only printer at Zaragoza until 1528. Zaragoza, April 30, 1500 A worthy successor to a worthy master, he Last page with colophon and printers' mark issued such books as the Missale romanum (1510) designated his masterpiece, the Decades of Livy (1520) with its many woodcuts, and the Jerome of 1528. His shop was in the Calle de la Imprenta, recently known as the Calle de D. Ramón Cuéllar. DON QUIXOTE In 1547, Alonso de Fuentes seriously related in his Summa de philosophia natural (v°fcxiv-v''fcxvi) how a man of Sevilla had become mentally deranged from too much reading of tales of chivalry. In a little over half a century another man, with wits muddled from too much reading, was given to the world in such guise that he remains as living as though he had once tarried among mortals. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, crippled at Lepanto, held by Moors, impover- ished by ransom and vicissitudes, but with an unspent abundance of the spirit, in his fifty-fifth year took up his pen to write the adventures of that Visionary Gentleman, Don Quijote de la Mancha, his "own self to satisfy". The editions of this most widely known and dearly cherished book are almost to be numbered as "thirty thousand thousand copies," in the words of Cervantes himself. The copies in the Library have been described bibliographically by Doctor Homero Serís in La colección cervantina de la Sociedad hispánica de America ([Urbana] 1918). In 1905 in commemoration of the tercentenary of the publication of the first edition, the Society projected a publication of seven volumes. It was to in- 403 HISPANIC SOCIETY dude facsimile reproductions of the first and so-called fourth editions of the first part (1605) and of the first edition of the second part (1615). The four re- El ingenioso el ingenioso el ingenioso HIDALGO DON HIDALGO DON QJi'I- HIDALGO DON QVl- CL.V I- XOTE DE LA MANCHA. XOTE DE LA MANCHA. XOTE DE LA MANCHA, CoThpueJîo Miguel de Ceruantes Computjio por c^kCigutlÀe Ceruantet Compuejio por C:^tgueí de CeruAntes por SMucdrtt. Saauedra, Saauedra. dirigido al DVQVE de BEI a r.. DIRIGIDO ALDVQVE DE BE fAR,, MarqiiesdeGibriUontConde» Bcnalca^ar, y Baáa« Marques dcGibraleoritCortde de Barcelona, ^ Bana- íes, Vizcòndcdela Puebla do Alcocer, Sonor de res, Viiconde dcJU Puebla de.Alcocer, Señor de 111 villas de Camilla, Curiel, j lii vilUsdc Capilla, Curicl, y Burgilloi. CON PRIVILI-GIO, Con CQN deCafiilla, PRIVILEGIO, prloilegto Aragon, y Portugal.' ACjlî>2tlD» Bor loan deli Cue/la. N £' Por de TcMkfttB uTtde FrucifM ¿c Ròblc», Rbrero ¿el Rty ofor«¿^ ^ Jy D t. ! Dt Porïaa»delàCucIJa. HAC sADZID $ Tuan la CucilaT Seris I Serîs 2 Seris S CERVANTES SAAVEDRA. Don Quixote Madrid, 1605 maining volumes of the publication were to be a critical text of both parts by the late Raymond Foulché-Delbosc, with an introduction by the late James Fitzmaurice-Kelly. The facsimiles were finished. These distinguished scholars having been unable to complete their labours, the project was brought to an end in 1932 with an English translation in two volumes by Robinson Smith. The Library guards sev- EL INGENIOSO EL INGENIO en of the editions issued in HIDALGO DON so HIDALGO DON 1605, together with copies QVIXOTE DE LA CompufJloporo^iguelJe CeruAntes MANCHA. of the spurious and true Sdaucdra. Com^ueflo por Miguelde Cet second parts. The first edi- uantesSaaneara. tion (Seris 1 ) bears the royal licence to print, extending only throughout Castilla and dated at Valladolid, September twenty-sixth, the £ M L 1 S B O A. Con I'uencU de U S. Intpùjicion» erratas, Alcalá, December EN imfaepocom lifençA do Sdnto do LISBOA: Off por large iiiq'red'o Pedio Crasbceclfe first, and the tassa, Valla- Redngnetj. %Anno dt \ 6 o p. Añc M. DC Y. dolid, December 20th, 1604. It was issued early in 1605. Serîs 3 Seris 4 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA. Don Quixote On all the Madrid editions Lisboa, 1605 is the best known of His- panic printers' marks, the hooded hawk on wrist of Juan de la Cuesta. Not original with him and used by others afterwards, yet with Cuesta will it 404 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS always be associated. The legend. Post ienebras spero lucem, is from the Vulgate or Saint Jerome's translation of Job xvii:12. Cervantes, in the second part of Don Quixote (ii : lxviii, EL INGENIOSO EL INGENIOSO Robinson Smith's trans- HIDALGO DON HIDALGO DON QVI- QVI- xotc dc la Mancha. xcrc dc la Mancha. lation, p. 566) brings it C.oihputJÎ9^rMiguel de Cernautd Compuejh por M'gutl de Cerikutttt in Saauedra» during a conversation Saauedra. D nil G ID O ALDVOVEDE between the of K:)>r. Mirqussde Gibialeon. Coodede b^rilcjçir.y Knight &jñitn,Vueo'rdc)' hidalgos» de la noble villa de} Argamerilla,pacri3fctiz dethid4l- Robinson Smith translation, p, 29), "Then it is ¿0 Cauallero Don (^uixucc de la Mancha* true there exists a history of me, composed by Moor and sage?" "So true, sir, that already more than twelve thousand copies have, I understand, been issued. Should you deem it impossible, let Portugal, de Barcelona and Valencia speak, for there too were Con Ucencia, En Tarragona en ufa Felipe Roberto»Aûoidi 4. they printed." Arco The Barcelona edition is unknown. The licence 54 FERNANDEZ for the "LA" Valencian edition (Seris 6) is dated DE AVELLANEDA Don Quixote February ninth, and the aprobación, July 18th, 1605. Tarragona, 1614 It is the Salva-Heredia-Jerez copy. Spurious second part Salva pointed out differences which resulted in the Valencian edition being divided into "AL" and "LA" editions or impressions. In 1911, SEGVNDA PARTE DEL I MG E N1 oso the Hispanist, Raymond Foulché-Delbosc, CAVALLERO DON LA called attention to the other variant which he Q.VIXOTE DE M AN CHA. Ctru4ntci imperfect. Sáéuedrá,dater dtfu fnrterupdrte» termed "C". The Society's copy is Dincida adon PedroFcni.-indczdeCanro, CondcdcLe* AndrfJc,y dcV.li»lua,Marques da S.irria. GentU- Although Cervantes promised continua- hc.nbrvdeia Camara de fu MageA.id, Con.cndadorde U a Encomienda de PeiufieLy tiifarçade la Orden d: AL cancara ,VitreY,Gouetnador,y Capiran General tion, the slipped by, and he was ever dil- dilRtynode Ñapóte»,y PiefidetJtc del fu- years oConfejodelaUa. atory. At some time after July 4th, 1614, a spurious second part (Arco y Molinero 54) ap- peared at Tarragona under the authorship of the Licentiate Alfonso Fernández de Avellaneda Año of Tordesillas, a pseudonym never satisfacto- rily pierced. Under the sting of this false con- tinuation, Cervantes was spurred to complete his sequel. "The old fire burned, his being En Midrid,i'or /vas de U CueJU, was renewed, his pen ran swiftly, and within yndtfttn Cdfé defrueifeo deJlotUtffibrerodtlJiejr if.S> a year the book was finished." Robinson Smith continues, "In a little more than a twelvemonth Seris 12 all of him that could die CERVANTES SAAVEDRA was dead. Omit the Don Quixote years 1603 and 1614 from Cervantes' life and Madrid, 1615 there is left but a clever writer of short stories ; True second part include those years and we have the most imaginative prose-writer of all time." The Duchess's observation to Sancho (o. Q. ii, d°/140) that works of charity 406 MANUSCRIPTS AND BOOKS done coldly and grudgingly are of no avail was condemned by the Inquisition but was not expurgated in the Society's copy. However, the rosary of the first edition of the first part (Seris 1) consisting of "eleven knots, one larger than the others" (/132) made from Don Quijote's shirt tail, in the later. Cuesta edition (Seris 5) consists of cork-tree nuts 32). The first edition of the true second part (Seris 12) was the last work of Cer- vantes to appear in print during his lifetime, the Council's licence bearing the date November 5th, 1615. The following April eighteenth he received the last rites of the church, on the next day he wrote his final words beginning "With one foot in the stirrup". On the twenty-third, old style, and on the same day, new style, Shakespeare and Cervantes set forth "on seas that know no shore". C. L. P. ' . . „ jïlí! - " ' i „3j.t ^ '* ^ '■:* I ,^J\i "s. rX>* "*'' . 'itC}iíiw*> '."¡íb V' i '' ^TÍ^ÍïIkSÍÍII t ^ , .'V r--' • • - •'•. -■•^"•-í- ••••■;•. .'■'JS.·. ♦• " i'S'-■*■■■!'-•".: ■ i V ■ - . -■^sr.:.', * ' '!' StK ^ 'w.. * I -■. ïs'iimt ' ' 5^ " ifcivi-íir i' "''-"ïïïiííïO ' J Î /Î a ' - V tj'-s ^ iyf.·'ï ^ ^ «iíí ^ ■"1 ^ V ~ ',- TVl y ' ''4^^e ^ 3áuW, i% V -J- t n^'^·' J/' 17A. .-) .iS-í " , -w-y ) í Ca 'i' j5^Í';·^Í·V • ■■• *'-'Vy V. , 'f^^èï' ■^,Tï- 4, Aw íf. ■'"'^ ^ ! V :^rV-v /^ -«■ "íA' ■ - ^í í I - , ' •AÍÍ·^'ïll^·^ · Ç|;f' *éípaí1?'<ÍS'^S»í7¿->--»■ <.Çy " ' .jf^V *" "" I?4. rtí?; -v.; 'í Î ij i - '3 Oí.v'·S.yl ' V i '' à/í '"■< ^ ,'-. I>.f í /t 'Vi-' * -í V , rvLíCi'i^ 'T" t -nJ s# 4 ■* 1^% INDEX INDEX Asterisks indicate the most important objects in the collection Abbreviations, Typographic, 365 Albiz Collection, Madrid, 11 'Abd al-Rahmân III, 112 Albocácer (Castellón de la Plana). Retablos, 4 Abella (Lérida), Pottery kiln at, 109 Album sevillano, 347 d'Abernon Collection, England, 15 Alburquerque, Duchess of see Enriquez de To- Abraham (A 1860), 6 ledo, Mencía, duchess of Alburquerque El Acébuchal (Sevilla), Excavations at, 103, 104 Alburquerque, Duke of see Cueva, Beltrán de la, Acuña y Osorio, Luis de, bp. of Burgos, 222 / st duke of Alburquerque Adams, Adeline Valentine (Pond). Portrait Bust Alcalá de Henares. Convent of the Magdalenas, (D355), 99 234 Adams, Herbert, 99 Alcántara The Adoration of the Magi (AI 3), 9 Cross of, 21, 291 (D4), 73 Order of, 292, 357 (D43), 86 Alcantarilla, Excavations at, 273 Aëneolithic period, 103-104 Alcocer y Martínez, Mariano, 383 iïsop. Les fabulas. 1495, 367 Alcolea del Rio (Sevilla), Excavations at, 106,109 After the Bath (A296), 44 Alcora ware, 137-140, 143, 269 Agnese, Battista, 317 Los Alcores, 57, 171 Agreda (Soria). Church of Nuestra Señora de los Alegre, Gerard, 239 Milagros, 9 Alegre, Manuel, 338, 340 Aguado, Sebastián, 146 Aleluya. Visit of Charles the Fourth and Maria Aguilar, Juan de Colmenares, abbot de. Sermo Luisa at Barcelona, 1802 (QS5670), 324, 325 (Haebler 8), 367, 368, 379, 380 Aleluyas, 324 Aguilar de Anguita (Guadalajara), 213 Alenza y Nieto, Leonardo, 36, 324, 326, 337 Aguilera family. Coat of arms of, 119 Alexander VI, pope Aguirre, Domingo de, 339 Brief (B238), 357 Agustín, Antonio. Diálogos de medallas inscri- Coat of arms of, 118 dones, 327 Alfonso II, king of Asturias and León, 180 Aicart, Cristóbal, 139 Alfonso III, king of León, 180 Al Horno (Huelva), 301 Alfonso V, king of Aragón, 5, 121, 125 Alantansi, Elieser ben, 386-387 Alfonso VIII, king of Castilla, 353 Alarcón (Cuenca). Church of San Juan, 194 Alfonso X, king of Castilla and León, 116, 184, Alava, Stained glass from, 154, 155 274, 361 *Alba, Duchess of. Portrait (A 102), 32, 33 Cantigas de Santa María, 183, 243 Alba, Srd du\e of, 16,17 *Privilegio rodado (B13), 353, 354 Holograph letter (B195), 355, 361 Las siete partidas, 382 *Portrait (A105), 16 (Haebler 518), 368 Alba, 17th dul^e of, 144 (Haebler 519), 365, 368 *Portrait (A2136), 49 El tratado de ajedrez, 243 Albacete, Cutlery from, 235-236 Alfonso XI, king of Castilla and León, 323 Albareda, Anselm Maria, 367,375 Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, 133, 144, 210, 342 Albarelos, Pottery Portrait (A55), 44 (E810), 128, 129 Alfonso, Master, 9 (E811), 129 Algodor (Toledo), Excavations at, 104 (E860, E868), 128-129 Alhambra, Granada, 63 (E870), 143 Door nails from, 218 (E885, E886, E888, E889), 131 Hall of the Two Sisters, 113 Albarracín (A2032), 48 Plaza de los Aljibes, 114 Albert, Miguel, 401 Wall decoration at the, 299 Albert the Great, bp. of Ratisbon, 127-128 Aliaga Collection, Madrid, 33 411 HANDBOOK Alicante, Glass industry of, 159, 160 Anne of Austria, queen of France, 292 An Allegory of Hercules between Virtue and Vice, Letter (B82), 360 Sketch for {Mill), 30,31 The Annunciation (Al, Al 3), 9 The Allegory of the Cortes of 1834, Sketch for *(A67), 29-30 (A 1780), 40 (D67), 91 Almagro lace patterns, 131 Ansó (Huesca) Almansa, Andrés de, 376 Costume, 42 Almedinilla (Córdoba), Excavations at, 214 Valley of, 42, 45 Almería Anthony of Padua, Saint, 94 Excavations at, 104, 131 Antolinez y Sarabia, Claudio José Vicente, 29,30 Glass from, 160-161 Antoninus, Saint. Suma de confesión (Haebler 20, Hispano-Moresque gravestones from, 63 24), 368, 369 Manufacture of iron utensils, 216 Summula (Haebler 19), 368-369 Almurci see Murci Antonio de Lebrixa, 369, 372, 376, 378, 388, 395 Alpartir de la Sierra (Zaragoza), Pottery from, 147 Dictionarium (Haebler 468, 469), 369 Alvarez de Acosta, Pedro, bp. of Osma, 263 Gramática (Haebler 470), 369 Alvarez de Sotomayory Zaragoza, Fernando, 48 Counterfeit edition, 369-370 Alvarez Quintero, Joaquín. Portrait (A2107), 50 Introductiones latinee (Haebler 464), 369 Alvarez Quintero, Serafín. Portrait (A2107), 50 Antwerp, Sculpture from, 73 Amador de los Ríos, José. Historia de la villa y Aparicio, José, 36 corte de Madrid, 348, 349 The Apotheosis of the Virgin, Retablo of (Al 3), 9 Amatller Collection, Barcelona, 151, 158, 162 Appentegger, Lope, 402, 403 Amberes, Domingo de, 84 Applique, 287, 289 Amerbach, Johannes, 377 Arabia, Class from, 156 América meridional, 340 Arabic designs, 299-300 Americana, 376, 380, 394 Arabic period, 61-64, 111-113, 179-180 Ametller, Blas, 338, 340 *Arabs Ascending a Hill (A303), 37-38 Amiens. Cathedral of Nôtre Dame, 69 Aragay Blanchar, José, 144 Amigo, Marcos, 236 Aragón, Juan de see Juan de Aragón Among the Toros de Guisando (A221), 41 *Aragón (Al 803), 45 Amphorae, Pottery (E220, E221), 108 Aragón Amphorae Handles, Pottery (E222, E223, E224), Key from, 219 108-109 Kingdom of, 70-73 Ampurias Aragón-Sicily, Coat of arms of, 123 Counts of, 188 Aragonese school, 8, 80-81 Excavations at, 107, 110, 151 Aralar ( Navarra). Retablo of San Miguel in Excel- Creek coinage of, 58 sis, 182 Amulets, Jet, 93-94 Aranda, Pedro Alcántara Buenaventura Abarca (D803), 94 de Bolea, 9th count of, 137, 138 Ancheta, Juan de, 84 Aranda, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea Jiménez Andalucía. El Encierro (Al 808), 45 de Urrea, /Oth count of, 139 Andalusian school, 89-91 *Porcelain Bust (E879), 139 Andalusian-Flemish school, 9 Aranjuez Anderson, Charles Loftus Grant, 397 Frescoes of Tiepolo, 31 Andino, Cristóbal, 230 Royal Palace, 141, 339 Andrea, Francisco, 127 Sculpture at, 91 Andreu, Ramón, 185 Arbués, Pedro de, 367, 379 Andueza, J. M. Isla de Cuba pintoresca, 350 Arbulo de Marguvete, Pedro, 84 Angelo, Pedro, 327 Arco y Molinero, Angel de, 406 Anges, Juan de, 83 Arezzo, Pottery from, 107, 109 Anglada Camarasa, Hermenegildo, 48 Arfe, Antonio de, 194 Animal, Class (T363), 160 Arfe, Enrique de, 191-192, 194 Anne, queen of England, 268 Arfe y Villafañe, Juan de, 194, 328 El Argar (Almería), Excavations at, 104, 273 INDEX La Argentina. Statuette (D976), 99 Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse. Portrait Arias Montano, Benito, 368 Head (D1202), 99 Arinyo, Gabriel Luis, 387, 395 Bañólas (Gerona), 278 Aristotle. Ethica (Haebler 33), 371 *Baptismal Font, Pottery (E503), 116 Oeconomica (Haebler 33), 372 Barcelona, 217 Política (Haebler 33, 35), 372 Casa del Arcediano, 227 Armengol VII, count of Urgel, Tomb of, 71 Cathedral, 74, 221 Arnoullet, Jacques, 390, 394 Church of Nuestra Señora del Pino, 119 Arretine ware, 107, 109-110 Diputación Provincial, 37 Arroyo del Puerco (Extremadura). Retablo, 12 Escola dels Bells Oficis, 167 L'Art, 334 Exposición Internacional, 1929-30, 166 El Arte en España, yil Exposition of French Art, 1917, 167 Arte para bien confesar (Haebler 36/8), 372 Class industry of, 155-159 Arteaga y Alfaro, Matías, 328, 330 Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Biblioteca de Cat- Artemis (D201), 60 alunya, 97, 400 Artíñano Collection, Madrid, 162, 163 Mark of, 190, 193, 200 El Artista, 346, 347 Monastery of San Francisco, 71 Aryballus, Glass (T72, T80), 153 Museus d'Art de Catalunya, 156, 160, 200 *The Ascension (A2031 ), 5 Volart Factory, 310 Ascham, Roger, 356, 360 Barcia, Angel María de, 327,328, 330, 337 Asín Palacios, Doctor Miguel. Portrait (A2108), Baroque period, 18-30,87-91,127-128,131, 133, 50 137-138.139,141,204-205,236, 237,255-267, Asís Artau, Francisco, 190 294 Assas, Manuel de. Album artístico de Toledo, 347 Barrau, Laureano, 41 Asselineau, Léon Auguste, 345, 346 Barrientos, María. Statuette (D842), 97 Astesanus de Ast. Summa (Gesamtl^at. 2757), 571 Barrois-Ashburnham Collection, 360 Atlas marítimo de España, 339, 340 Barros, Joâo de, 394 Aubert, David, 393 Bartolomé, Master, 184, 229 Augusta, Cristóbal, 127 Basil, Saint. De legendis (Haebler 44), 372 Augustan period, 60, 273 Basilea, Fadrique de, 365, 366, 367-368, 372, Augustus, 60, 273 376, 389, 390, 393-394 Aula Dei 63 (Carthusian monastery), 31 Basin, Hispano-Moresque (D213), Avignon, Enamels from, 184 Basque (D966), 99 Avila, 399 Juan de, 229 Bastero, Antonio, Avila. Cathedral. Tomb of Alfonso Tostado, 77 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 41 Church of San Vicente, 66, 216 Batanero, Félix, 326 Avrial, 349 Bauer José, Collection, Madrid, 339 * 36 Ayamonte (Al 812), 46 Bayeu y Subias, Francisco, 30, 31, 33, Azara, José Nicolás de, 338 Beach of Valencia by Morning Light (A2137), 44 * the Azorín, 348 Beaching Boat (A58), 42 Beakers, Class Bachiller, Doroteo, 347 (T94), 152 Bacri/reres Collection, Paris, 4 (T98), 154 Badajoz, Pottery from, 128 (T184), 152 Bade, Josse. Stultiferse naues (Haebler 39), 372, Bear Group (D357), 100 393 Becarrio, Battista, 316 Baena. Convent of the Madre de Dios, 126 Becerra, Caspar, 84 Baetis river, 109 Becerril, Alonso, 194 Baeza. Cathedral, Mudejar door from, 64 Becerril, Cristóbal, 194, 195 Bailey, Vernon Howe, 53 Becerril, Francisco, 194 Balazote, Bicha of, 58 Bécquer, Gustavo Adolfo Domínguez, 347 Ballus, Joannes, of Naples, 361 Bécquer, Joaquín Domínguez, 347 Baltasar Carlos, ihfante, 23, 330, 355 Bécquer, José Domínguez, 347, 348 Portrait. After Velázquez (QS534), 330 Bécquer, Valeriano Domínguez, 36, 347 HANDBOOK Beds, 243, 246, 250, 256 *"Black" books, 357-358 Belem. Cathedral, 207 Blanch, Consolí, 185 Bellpuig de les Avellanes, Monastery of. Tomb Blanchard, Pbaramund, 347 of a count of Urgel, 71 Blanco, Bernardo, 349 Benameji, Marquis of, 209 Blay y Fàbrega, Miguel, 97 Benavente, María Josefa Pimentel, countess- Blesa (Teruel). Retablo by Martín Bernat and duchess of, 339 Miguel Ximénez, 7 Benches, 243, 246, 250, 256, 263-264 Block printing see Woodcuts (SI), 263, 264 Blondes, 309-310 (32), 262, 264 (*H6036, H6038, H6047), 309 (S3), 262, 263-264 (H6049),310 Benedict, Saint. Regula (Haebler 46), 372 Boabdil, 180,215 Benedict XIll, antipope, 187 Bobbin laces, 301, 304-307, 308-310 Benedictine monks, 182 (H5945-H5954), 306 The Benediction (A760), 36 (H5955-*H5959, H5960), 308 Benedito Vives, Manuel, 48 (H5962), 306 Benlliure y Gil, Mariano, 95-97 (H5979-H5992), 308 Bennett, Richard, 380 *(H6000), 306-307 Benvenuti, Lorenzo di Mariotto, Coat of arms (H6006, H6015), 306 of, 123 (H6253-H6255). 310 Bérain, Jean, 139, 236 Bobbins, 310-311 Béraldi, Henri, 336 Bocadillo see Cutwork Berlin. Hildesheim treasure, 174 Boccaccio, Giovanni. Cayda (Haebler 53), 374- Bermejo, Bartolomé, 9-10 375 Bernard, Saint. Floretus{Gesamt\at. 4000), 372 Bockler, Georg. Andrea, 317 Meditationes (Haebler 48), 372 Boil, Bernardo, 386 Bernat, Johan, 383 Boil, Pedro, 120 Bernat, Martín, 7-8 Boix, Esteban, 338 Berneç, Pere, 184 Boix y Merino, Félix, 331, 346 Berruguete, Alonso, 83, 84 Bolet family. Coat of arms of, 119 Berruguete, Inocencio, 83 Bolivar, Simón. Statuette (D964), 99 Beruete, Aureliano de, 41 Bolonia, Excavations at, 107, 153 Portrait (A49), 45 Bonacossi family. Coat of arms of, 123 Beruete y Moret, Aureliano de, 33-34, 334, 335, Bonaventura, Saint. Forma noticiorum (Haebler 344 63), 375 Bessón, Pablo, 392 Meditations (Haebler 69), 375 Betanzos (La Coruña), Pottery from, 147 Bonete (Albacete), Excavations at, 215 Bible. O. T. Job, 405 Bonium, pseud. Bocados de oro (Haebler 56), 375 Bible, Complutensian, 377, 392 Bonsoms y Sicart, Isidro, 399 Bible, Hebrew (B241), 359 Bonsor, George Edward, 57, 103, 104, 105, 106, *Bible, Valencian (Haebler 49), 372-374,389,395 108, 109, 153, 171, 174-175 Biblia pauperum, 323 Bookbinding (R3006), 209 Bibliofília, 323 Books of hours, 357-358, 378, 389, 390 Biedma family. Coat of arms of, 291-292 Bordono Collection, Madrid, 248 Biel, Friedrich, 368 Borglum, John Gutzon de la Motbe, 99 Bilbao y Martínez, Gonzalo, 42 *Bori, Lucrezia. Portrait (A2156), 47 Bill, Carroll, 52 Borja, Rodrigo see Alexander VI, pope Bindings, 378, 380, 382, 385-386, 402 Borja (Zaragoza). Colegiata de Santa Maria, 7 see also Bookbinding Borrell, Jaume, 374 Portuguese, 357, 358-359 Bosch y Barrau, Pablo, 397 Spanish, 358, 363-364 Portrait (A32), 42 The Birth of the Virgin (D47), 86 Boscoreale treasure, 174 Bishop, Bust of a (D298), 82 Bosque, Pedro del, 368 A Bishop Saint (D40), 88 Boston. Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, 205 INDEX Botel, Heinrich, 379, 383 Buffalo. Fine Arts Academy. Albright Art Gal- Bowls, Pottery lery, 47 (E2), 103 *Bull Attacked by Dogs (QS7069), 343, 344 *(EI5), 104 Bullfighters, 333 (El 9), 103 Bullfights, Prints of, 333-334, 335, 336, 343- (E214), 111 344, 349 (E291,E299), 110 Bulls' Heads from Mallorca (D943, D949), 59 (E632), 120 Buño (La Coruña), Pottery from, 147 *(E643), 121, 122 Buonaparte, Joseph, 36 (E739, E740), 117 Burgo de Osma *(E743), 118 Cathedral, 84, 229 (E815), 133 Excavations at, 151 *(E820), 130-131 Burgos, Andrés, 376 (El 122, El 123), 147 Burgos, Juan de, 376, 381, 389 Boxes, Silver Burgos (R3073), 199 Cathedral, 69, 77, 210, 222, 225, 246 (R3074), 197 Chests, 245 Boxes, Wooden, 244, 245 Monastery of Miraflores, 83, 246 Boxwood carvings, 81, 248, 254 Museo Arqueológico Provincial, 182 *Boxwood Triptych (D28), 81 Sculpture at, 73, 74, 75 *Boy with a Falcon (E3025), 141 Burguillos (Badajoz), Bricks from, 111 Bracellus, Jacobus. Lihellus (Hain 3695), 375 Busot (Alicante), Class industry of, 159 Brambila, Fernando, 336, 337 Busquet, José, 164 Braziers, 249, 250, 256, 265 Byne, Arthur and Mildred (Stapley), 260 *(R164), 236 Byzantine influence, 111 *(379), 265 Breda (Gerona), Pottery from, 147 Ça Coma, Johan, 381 Bregno, Andrea, 78 Caballería de la Banda, Order of the, 323 Breton, Jules, 41 Cabinetmakers, 257-258, 260, 267, 268, 269 *Bréval, Lucienne. Portrait (A290), 47 England, 268, 269 Breviaries, Mozarabic, 376-377 France, 268, 269 The Bridge of Alcántara, Toledo (A300), 41 Cabinets, 256, 258, 260, 261, 264 Briseville, Hugues, 236 *(S51), 247, 248-249 British Museum see London *(S52, S53), 259, 260-261 Broadsides see Aleluyas Cabra, Count of, 126 Brocaded fabrics, 279, 280-282, 292 Cacabelos (León), Statue of Saint Martin from, Brocar, Arnaldo Guillén de, 389, 391, 392-393 73-74 Brocar, Juan de, 393 Cadalso de los Vidrios (Toledo), Class industry Bronze Age, 59, 103, 104 of, 161-162 Bronzes, Pre-Roman, 58 Cadeneta, 307-308 Bronzes, Roman, 60-61 (H5921, H5922), 308 Brooklyn Museum, 258 Cádiz, 57 Brun, Pedro, 392 Excavations at, 107 Brun, Sigismund, 164 Necropolis of Punta de la Vaca, 171 Brunetti, Juan Bautista, 335 Pottery industry of, 110 Brusi, Antoni, 345 Caesar, C. J. Los comentarios (Haebler 113), 375 Brussels Cairo. Mosque of Kalaun, 299 Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique, 327 Calatrava, Order of, 49 Musée Royal des Beaux Arts, 16 Calbo, Pedro, 234 Sculpture from, 73 Calcografía de la Imprenta Nacional, Madrid, 333 Buccleuch Collection, England, 11 Calcografía Nacional, Madrid, 331 Buen Retiro. Royal Porcelain Factory, 140-143, Calderón, 355 269 Calderón, espada, 46 Bueras, Simón de, 83 Calvario at Sagunto (A2034), 41 HANDBOOK Calviro, Placitus, 317 Cartas ejecutorias de hidalguía, 360 Camarón, Vicente, 345, 347 Cartas partidas, 353 Camarón y Boronat, José, 30 Carthaginians, 57, 58, 59, 106, 171 Cambridge, England. Fitzwilliam Museum, 76 *Carthusian Monh. Reading (A97), 20 Campoamor y Campoosorio, Ramón María de Cartuja de Aula Dei, 31 las Mercedes de. Portrait (A53), 40, 41 Carvajal, Bernardino de, cardinal. Oratio Camus, Philippe, 393 (Church 3), 376 La Cañada Honda, Gandul see Gandul (Sevilla). Sermo(Hain*4549), 376 La Cañada Honda, Excavations at Carvajal, Gutierre de, hp. of Plasència, 133 Canania see Alcolea del Río Carvajal, Isabel de. Coat of arms of, 123 Candelabra Ca's Concos, Bull's head from, 59 Porcelain (E3020, E3021), 142 Casajús, Vicente M., 347 Silver (R162-R163). 227 Casals, Pablo. Portrait Bust (D970), 99 Caning, 261, 262 Castalls, Jaume de, 71 *Cannon, El Asiano (R2013), 238 Castelló, Vicente, 324, 326 Cano, Alonso, 23, 88, 90, 328 Castells, House of, 310 Cano de la Peña, Eduardo, 37 Castillan school, 9, 87-89 Cánovas del Castillo, Antonio, 381, 382, 391 Castilian-Flemish school, 8-9 Chnlir, Glass (T358), 158-139 *Castilla{k\m), 46 Capital of a Monumental Cross (D287), 72-73 Castilla, José, 326 Capitals, Hispano-Moresque, 63 Castilla-León, Coat of arms of, 123 Capodimonte (Naples). Royal Porcelain Factory, Castle of San Servando (A146), 41 [ 160 140, 141 Castril de la Peña (Almería), Glass industry of, Los Caprichos. 330-332, 333, 334, 335, 340 Castro, Rodrigo de, hp. of Cuenca, 194 Capuz, Tomás, 326 Catalan school, 3-6, 9 Caravaggio, Michaelangelo da, 18 Catalans of Almatret (Al 979), 51 Cardano, Felipe, 344-345 Catalina Micaela, duchess of Savoy, 301 Cardano, José Maria, 343, 344 Catalina y García, Juan, 367, 392 Cárdenas family, Tombs of, 75 "Cataluña (Al 804), 45 Cárdenas Zapata, Iñigo de, 285 Catherine of Braganza, queen of England, 261 Carderera y Solano, Valentín, 348 Catholic Kings, 8,73,75,218,226,230,235,243, Cardunets, América, 167 304 La Caridad, Brotherhood of, 25 see also Ferdinand V; Ferdinand and Isabel; Cariño, Salvadora, 51 Isabel 1 Carmelites, Order of, 29, 131 Causada, José, 137 Carmen (A306), 42 Cavalca, Domenico. El espejo de la cruz (Haebler Carmena y Millán Collection, 343 145), 379 Carmona, Salvador see Salvador Carmona Cavallini, Giovanni Battista, 317 Carmona (Sevilla) Ceán Bermúdez, Juan Agustín, 30, 327, 332 Church of San Felipe, 126 Cebrián, José, 349 Church of Santiago, 126 Ceilings, Mudejar, 64-65 Excavations at, 104, 105, 107, 152, 153 Cejador y Frauca, Julio. Portrait (Al 965), 50 Carnicero, Antonio, 335, 336, 340 *La Celestina (Haebler 146), 379-380, 393 Carnicero, Isidro, 335, 336 Celias, Antonio Pérez de las, 188 Carnival Scene (Al 16), 36 Celtiberians, 106 Carpenters, 244, 248,257, 258, 266 Celts, 104-105,213 Portuguese, 259 Censer (R3081), 192 *Carpet (H329), 289, 290 Centenera, Antonio, 391 Carpets, Spanish, 283, 289 Ceramics see Porcelain; Pottery see also Rugs, Spanish La Cerda family, 250 Carreño de Miranda, Juan, 28-29 Coat of arms of, 126 Cartagena, Alfonso de, bp. of Burgos, 74, 391 Cerro de los Santos (Murcia), Sanctuary of, 58 Doctrinal(H&eh\eT 124, 126), 376 Certosina work, 249 Cartas dentadas, 353 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 394, 398 416 INDEX Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de (continued) Chicago. Art Institute, 278 Don Quixote, 40, 146, 335-336, 340, 342, 364, Chicharro y Agüera, Eduardo, 48 403-407 Children on the Beach (A2 138), 44 [ 142 Illustrations for The history of the valourous and Chinese influence, 128, 130, 134-136, 139, 141, witty hnight-errant Don Quixote of the Man- Chip 262 4 cha, by Daniel Urrabieta carving, [tablo, Vierge (A927- 40 Chiva de Morella (Castellón de la Plana). Re- A931), Sketch Choir for illustration in El hi- books, 361-364 an ingenioso dalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha Choir by José stalls, 245, 266-267 Jiménez Aranda (A546), 40 *(362), 266-267 Cervera, Mark of, 200 Cholmondeley, Marquis of, 269 Céspedes, Domingo de, 230 Christ (D27), 74 Chairs, 243, 246, 249, 250-252, 257, 259, 261- Christ Bearing the Cross (D25), 83 263, 268-269 Christ the Good Shepherd (A81), 26 (S4), 260, 262 Christmas in Spain (A678), 39 (312), 267 Chronicles, 381-382 (S15-SI7), 251 Church, Elihu Dwight, 376, 380, 405 *(SI7), 249 Church vestments, 274, 279, 280, 281, 282, 287, (319), 261,262 288, 289, 292 (320), 260, 262 Chasubles *(321,322), 268-269 *(H3910), 281-282 (365), 261,262 *(H3911), 279, 280 (367, 371), 262 (H3930), 292 Chalice (R3082), 193 Copes Charles, king of Naples and Sicily see Charles *(H3923), 282 III, king of Spain (H3932), 281 Charles II, k'^g of England, 261 Dalmatics Charles II, king of Spain, 28, 29, 91, 136, 328 *(H3920), 287, 288 Letter (B203), 360 *(H3921), 287-288, 289 *Portrait (A61), 28 (H3922), 281 Charles III, king of Spain, 30, 140, 142, 164, 166, Silk, Hispano-Moresque, 274 208, 269, 294, 338 Churriguera, José, 163, 255 Portrait (Q31561), 338 Churriguera, School of, 91 Charles IV, king of Spain, 142, 269, 325, 330, Churriguerismo, 204, 232, 255, 309 338, 339, 340, 347 The Cid Campeador, 182, 333 Charles V, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire *3tatue(D988), 98,100 and kingof Spain, 16, 17, 81, 82, 85, 126, 161, Ciego Cantor, 335 197,249,251,263,282,290, 301,304, 333,360, Ciempozuelos (Madrid), Excavations at, 104 402 Cinca river, 51 Decree (B253), 357 Urns *Portrait Medallion Cinerary (D277), 82 Glass Chartres (T185), 153 School of, 66 Pottery 105 Stained glass windows, 154 (E41), 107 Charts, Portolano, 315-319 (E311), Cisneros, Francisco cardinal see Chastre, Jiménez de, Gasparde de la, 382 Jiménez de Cisneros, Francisco, cardinal Chateaubriand, François Auguste René, vicomte La Cita 347,348 de. Sketches for Les (Q37020), aventures du dernier Aben- by Daniel Urrabieta Civera, Vierge, 40 Juan Bautista. Anales, 363, 374 cerage, Classical 294 Chatuzange 174 influence, 142, 269-270, treasure, 388 Chests, 243-246,249, 264-265 Cleblat, Esteva, The (357), 264, 265 Cliffs of Cuenca (A823), 52 *(358), 243, 244, 245 Cloostermans, Pierre, 139 (359), 264-265 Clovio, Julio, 14 Chew, Coca. Benjamin, 266 Castle, 49 Coci, Jorge, 402, 403 417 HANDBOOK Coello, Claudio, 30, 328 Costume, Sumptuary laws for, 290-291, 301, Cofmán, Cristóbal, 391 304-305 Las Cogotas (Avila), Excavations at, 104, 213 Counterfeit editions, 369-370 Coimbra. Contento dos Lóyos, 92 Covarrubias (Burgos). E\-Colegiata. Chapel of Coins of Greek colonies in Spain, 58 los Reyes, 74-75 Colección de las principales suertes de una corrida Crasbeeck, Pedro, 405 de toros, 336 Crawford, Lord, 378 Colección de las vistas de los sitios reales y...de Crawford, William Horatio, 401 Madrid, 346 Crespo, Ricard, 167 Colección de trajes de España, 335, 340 Crivelli, Carlo, 6 Colección lithogróphica de cuadros del rey de Es- Crochet, 307 paña, 345-346 Crofts, Thomas, 400 Collantes, Francisco, 24-25 Crombergers, 384 Cologne, Reliquary busts at, 86 Crónica del Rey Don Pedro (Haebler 38), 381 Colón, Josef, 381 ^Crónica del Rey Don Rodrigo (Haebler 174), 381, Colonia, Paulus de, 368, 394 382 Colonia family, 73, 75, 225 Crosier (R3065), 202 Colonna, Egidio, romano. Re|ímen¿(Haeblerl 54), Cross 380-381 de la Victoria, 180 Regimiento (Haebler 156), 381 de los Angeles, 180 Colophon, 365-366,402 Monumental. Capital (D287), 72-73 Columbus, Christopher, 37, 44, 397, 402 *Rock Crystal (R3009), 198 Epistola (Church 8,5), 380 Crowns, Visigothic, 176-177 Columbus, Ferdinand, 127, 384, 397 Crucifixes Columbus Leaving Palos, Sketches for, 44 *(R3013), 189, 190 Combs, Ivory, 57 (R3014), 191 Comfit Box, Porcelain (E3018), 141 (R3022), 183-184 Conchillos, Lope de, 360 (R4002), 191 Conchillos y FeJcó , Juan, 30 Crucifixes, Enameled Conde, Domingo, 208 (R3010), 182 Confirmantes, 355 *(R3012). 186,187 Constituciones del arçobispado de Seuilla, 327-328 *(R3015), 185-186 Consummatum Est (A308), 40 The Crucifixion (Al), 8 Copenhagen. Museum of Decorative Arts, 261 Crucifixion Group, Statuette from a (D30), 92 Coptic influence, 276 Cruet, Glass (T505), 166 Corbels, Mudejar (D49-D60), 64 Cruz, Manuel de la, 340 Córdoba, Martín Alfonso de. Jardín (Haebler Cruz Cano y Olmedilla, Juan de la, 335, 336, 340 169/10), 381 La Cruz del Negro (Sevilla), Excavations at, 105, Córdoba 106 Caliphate of, 61, 63, 178, 273 Crystal, 197-198 Cathedral, 114 Cuadra, Pedro de la, 85 Church of the ex-Convent of the Carmelitas Cuatro compañeros alemanes, 394, 395, 396 Calzados, TI Cuban sculptors, 97 Pottery from, 105, 108 Cubillana, Juan de, 229, 230 School of, 9 Cuéllar. Monastery of San Francisco, 77-78 Silversmiths of, 194, 203 Cuenca (A826), 52 Coronation of the Royal Infante of Spain, Don Cuenca. Cathedral, 194, 196, 237 Carlos of Bourbon, in the Cathedral, Palermo Cuenca (province). Glass industry of, 162-163 (A761), 30 Cuesta, Juan de la, 404-405, 407 Corpus Christi festival, 190, 191, 196, 197 Cueva, Beltrán de la Corral, Juan del, 392 Est duke of Alburquerque, 77, 301 Correa, Marcos, 30 3rd duke of Alburquerque, 200-201 Corregió, Niccolò da, 399 Cueva, Gutierre de la, bp. of Palència Costitx, Bulls' heads from, 59 *Tomb (D274), 77-78 418 INDEX Cups, Glass Díaz de Montalvo, Alfonso. Ordenanças (Haebler (T101.TI02), 154 220), 382 (T355). 162 Díaz de Toledo, Fernando. Notas (Haebler 225), Curial e Guelfa, 188 382 Curiel, laacob, 359 Diego, 327 Curtius Rufus, Quintus. Historia (Haebler 186), Díez, Fernando. Obra (Haebler 228), 383 382 Díez, Manuel. Libro (Haebler 206), 383 Custodias, 185,190,191,192, 193,194,195, 196, Díez, Pedro, 188, 190 197,210, 328 Dirección de Hidrografia, Madrid, 343 *(R3019), 194-196 Disembarkation of the Body of the Apostle James Outwork, 303, 304 (A198),40 Cuzco. Cathedral, 267 Dishes Cyprus, Gold threads of, 274 Pottery (E586), 121 Dagger (R158),214 *(E627), 123 Dagger and Sheath (R4478), 213-214 (E688), 124 Dalles, Jean, 366, 391 (E805), 129 Dalmau, Luis, 5 Silver (R3037), 200 Damascus, Glass from, 156 Los Disparates see Los Proverbios Dancart, Master, 1^ Domènech, Fray Francisco, 327 Daniel the Martyr, Saint, ICI Domènech, Rafael, 251 Daoiz, Luis, 340 Domingo, Master, 231 Daroca Domingo y Marquès, Francisco Custodia for corporales, 185 Portrait (A37), 41 Relief of the Pentecost (D303), 66-67 Portrait bust, 96 Retablos, 7-8, 10 Domínguez Bècquer see Bècquer Daubigny, Charles François, 38 Dominic, Saint, 127-128, 286, 287 Dauzats, Adrien, 347 Dominic of Guzman, Saint, 283 *David(AmO),6 Dominicans, Order of, 131, 133, 234 David, Jacques Louis, 36 Don Antonio the Englishman, by Velázquez, Davies, Hugh William, 392-393 Copy of (A1960), 52 the Fiesta, 48 Don Quixote see Day of Lagartera (A2039), Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de The Death of Saint Mary Magdalene Donatello, 83 (D822), 91 Door Rings (R89, R83), 219, 220 *Decanter, Glass (T428), 165 Doors, Mudejar (D45, D70, D71), 64 Delft, Pottery of, 130 Dortas, Abraham ben Samuel, 402 Delgado, Juan, 231-232 Dowling, John, 164 Delteil, Loys, 335, 343 Drawn work, 301-304 The Deposition (D14), 76-77 see also Embroidery, Samplers Los Desastres deia Guerra, 34, 332-333, 335 (H590I, H5902), 302 Desbarreaux-Bernard, Tibulle, 367, 385, 388 *(H5905), 303 The Descent from the Cross or Santíssim Misteri (H5908, H5910, *H5916), 302 (San Juan de las Abadesas), 67 (H6032, *H6087), 303 Descent from the Cross, Groups of the, 67 (H7522, H7545), 304 Deshilado see Drawn work Dressel, Heinrich, 108 Desks see Vargueños The Drinkers. After Velázquez (QS533), 330, 331 Despeñaperros, Figurines from, 58, 59 *Duchess of Alba (A102), 32, 33 Despuig family. Coat of arms of, 123 Dumonstier, Daniel, 400 Despujol family. Coat of arms of, 123 Dutch influence, 160 Detroit. Institute of Arts, 257 Dyck, Sir Anthony van, 28 Devéria, Achille, 347 Devonshire, Duke of, 269 Ecce Homo (A79), 12 El diablo cojuelo, see Le Sage, Alain René * The Ecstasy of Saint Mary Magdalene (A76), 19 Diario de Madrid, 333 Eder, Joseph, 164 HANDBOOK Edwardes, Sir Henry Hope, 381 Escorial, Monastery of San Lorenzo del, 17, 340, Edwards, George Wharton, 53 361,368, 369 *Effigies of a Knight of Santiago and His Lady Architect of, 232 (D288-D289), 78-80 Binder of, 368 Effigy of a Lady (D75), 88 Crystal vase from, 198 Effigy of a Man (D76), 88 Furniture of, 251 Egas family, 73, 75 Gifts made by Philip II to, 197 Egypt, Glass from, 151,156 Ironwork from, 228 Egyptian designs, 270 Librarian of, 368 *Elche (A1806), 45 Library of, 368 Elche, Lady of, 58-59, 97 Pottery made for, 131 Elías, Francesc, 167-168 Retablo mayor, 85, 86 Elizabeth, queen of England. Letter (B91), 356- Super-libris of, 368, 369 357 Tombs of Charles V and Philip II, 85, 86 Eloy, Saint, 184, 217 Escritura de albalaes, 353 ElEmlozadoiqsm^), 334,335 Escudero y Perosso, Francisco, Tib Embroidery, 285-288, 290, 299, 301, 304, 305 Escutcheons, Tlb-TKi, 399—400 see also Applique; Cutwork *Espada Falcata (R161), 215 High-relief, 287,290 *Espalargucs, Pere. Retablo (A5), 6-7, 69 *Saint Dominic (H3915), 286-287 Los Españoles pintados por sí mismos, 326 *Saint Francis (H3913), 286-287 Espinosa, Juan de, 258 *Saint Jerome (H3912), 286-287 Esquivel, Antonio María, 347 *Saint Peter (H3914), 286-287 Establecimiento Litogrâfico del Depósito General Samplers de la Guerra, Madrid, 345 (H6091,H6096), 304 Estébanez Calderón, Serafín, 400 (H6125). 304, 305 Estevan, Isidro, 35 (H6131), 304 Esteve, Rafael, 340, 341 Empire style, 270 Esteve Botey, Francisco, 333 Emporion see Ampurias Etchings, 326-342 Enamels Eusebius, pamphili. Epístola (Haebler 249), Champlevé, 181, 182, 186, 187 383 Cloisonne, 181, 202, 204 Evangelist, Symbols of (Cross R4002), 191 Painted, 199 *An Evangelist also known as The Holy Simeon Translucent, 185,186,190 (A1894),14 Enfield, Viscount of, 269 *Ewer and Dish, Silver (R3084-R3085), 207 Engelmann, Gottfried, 342, 345 Ewers English influence, 139-140, 164 Class English school, 49 *(T14), 152 English Sketchbook (A1734), 38 (T108), 154 Engravings, 326-342 Pottery (E612), 120-121 Enriquez de Toledo, Mencia, duchess of Albur- Silver 201 querque, 300, 301 *(R3041,R3043), *Tomb (D275), 77-78, 79 *(R3086), 207 The Entombment *The Exhumation of the Blessed Simón de Rojas (A2031),5 (D46), 89 (D13), 76 Eximeniç, Fra Francesch, 120 383 *Enviny. Church. Retablo (A5), 6, 69 Libre (Haebler 706), Enzinas, Juan, 392 Eximenix, Elionor, 401 Épinay, Charles Adrien Prosper, count d', 99 "Explicit", 365-366 * Episodios de la guerra de Africa, 349 Extremadura (Al 811 ), 46 Erasmus, Desiderius, 377 Eymonaud Collection, Paris, 4 Ermengol, Saint, 206 Escalante, Juan Antonio, 29-30 Fabriciano Collection, 226 The Escaped Bull (A762). 39 Fajalauza (Granada), Pottery industry of, 145 420 INDEX Falke, Otto von, 292 (T354, T362), 161 *The Family of the Gypsy Bullfighter (A293), 46 (T364), 160 Farnese, Cardinal hXessanôxo, 14 Pottery (E307), 110 Felanitx, Bull's head from, 59 Flemish sculpture in Spain, 73-74, 75 Felicia, consort of Sancho Ramirez, king of Aragón Flor, Roger de, 398 and Navarra, 181 Floranes, Rafael de, 382-383 Felipe, infante of Castilla, 114, 214-215 Florencio, 363 Coat of arms of, 114 Florentina, Saint, 88 Ferdinand I, of León and Castilla, 65, 181 Floridablanca, Count of, 31 Ferdinand 1, king of the Two Sicilies, 209 Flowerpot, Pottery (E987), 133-134 Ferdinand II, king of León, 353 Foix, Coat of arms of the Counts of, 7 Ferdinand III, king of Castilla and León, 114, Fonseca, Alfonso, ahp. of Toledo, 377 274, 328, 330 *Foraster, Alberto. Portrait (A103), 34 Setenario, 382 Fori aragonû (Haebler 280), 370-371 Ferdinand V, kinê of Spain, 116, 125, 155, 282, Forment, Damián, 76, 81, 83, 193 360,402 Forner family, 4 Ferdinand VI, king of Spain, 294 Fortuny y Marsal, Mariano José María Ber- Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, 34, 209, 270, 345, nardo, 37-38, 39, 40, 41, 328, 336-337, 342, 346 343 Portrait (A309), 34 Portrait Busts Ferdinand and Isabel, 382, 396 (D347), 99 see also Catholic Kings (Dl 125), 97, 99 Escutcheon, 375 Foulcbé-Delbosc, Raymond, 367, 390, 404, 405, Laws, 382 406 Letter (HI59), 357 Portrait (A40), 40 Fernández, Alejo, 9 *Fountain, Pottery (E989), 134, 135 Fernandez, Diego, 353 Fraga (Huesca), Fernández, Gregorio, 87 Castle of Urganda the Unknown, 51 Fernández, Lope, 369 Church of San Pedro, 51 Fernández, María del Rosario, la Tirana, 33 Pottery from, 147 Fernández, Sol, 353 Francés, Juan, 222 Fernández de Arcas, Vicente, 357 Francis, Saint, 286, 287 Fernández de Avellaneda, Alfonso, pseud., 406 Order of, 267, 293 Fernández de Córdoba, Alfonso, 366, 369, 387, Francisco de Asís, king ofSpain. Portrait (A247), 389, 395-396 37 Fernández de Luna, Lope, ahp. of Zaragoza, 185, Franco-Prussian war, 39 186 Francour, Johan de, 382 Fernández de Moratín, Leandro see Moratin Fraser, James Earle, 99 Fernández de Villalón, Joan, 197 Frate, Fernando, 141 Fernández-Guerra y Orbe, Aureliano, 370 Fr. Gerundio, 326 Fernández Noseret, Luis, 338 Freducci, Conte di Ottomano, 317 Ferrer, Boniface, 374 French influence, 136-139, 141, 154-155, 164, Ferrer, José María, 343 167, 206, 292, 294,310 Filet, 301 French Sketchbooks (A1735-A1736, A1738- Finíais, Pottery (E529, E530), 115 A1741), 38 Finiguerra, Maso, 327 Froben, Johannes, 377 Fita, Fidel, 386 Fuentes, Alonso de. Summa. 1547, 403 Fitero, Monastery of. Hispano-Moresque ivory Fulgentius, Saint, 88 box, 61 Fumo, Felipe, 141 Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James, 404 Funerary Urn of Don Juan de Aragón (D286), Fitzwilliam Museum see Cambridge, England 71-72 Flagpole Bases (D1009-D1010), 100 Furniture, 243-270 Flasks Balearic Islands, 249, 262 Glass Colonial, 266-267, 268 421 HANDBOOK Furniture (continued) Gilding on glass, 164 Silver, 249-250 Gimbernat, Carlos de, 342-343 Sumptuary laws for, 249-250, 258 Giménez, —, 349 Furs de Valencia (Haebler 282), 401 Giordano, Luca, 30 Girardot de Préfond, Paul, 378, 400 Gabriel de Borbón, infante, 339 Girava, Hieronymo, 317 Gaceta de Madrid, 333 The Girl with the Cock. (A 1987), 51 Gaceta de Teatros, 347 *Girls of Burriana (A295), 48 Gâdër, 57 Giroldi, Giacomo, 316 Gagini family, 82, 83 Girona, Ramón, 139 Gainsborough, Thomas, 49 Gisbert, Antonio, 37 Galba, Mossèn Marti Johan de, 398 Givanel y Mas, Juan, 399 *Galicia (Al 813), 46 Glanville, Bartholomaeus. El libro de proprieta- The Galician Dance (Al 719), 49 tibus Gallardo, Bartolomé José, 367, 382, 385 (Gesamikat. 3424), 384-385 Gallego, Fernando, 8 Glasgow. Hunterian Museum, 396 Galván y Candela, José María, 341-342 Glass Gálvez, Juan, 336, 337 Castillan, 160, 161-166 Gandul (Sevilla). La Cañada Honda, Excava- Catalan, 155-159, 162, 164, 166-168 tions at. 107,108,111,152,153,154,175 Damascus, 156 Garces, Bonifacio. Peregrina (Haebler 73), 384 Dutch, 160 García, Señora de (A27), 44 Egyptian, 151 García Fernández de Talavera, 129, 133 Enameled, 155-158, 159-160, 164, 167-168 García Gutiérrez, Antonio, 346 English, 164 García Falencia Collection, Madrid, 14 Engraved, 152, 160, 161-162, 163-165 Garland Collection, New York, 281 French, 164, 167 Garlandia, Joannes de, 372 German, 160, 164 Gaselee, Stephen, 367 Granada, 160-161 Gauls, 213 Greek, 151 Gautier, Théophile, 337 Majorcan, 159, 166 Gauzón, Castle of, 180 Muhammadan, 156, 159-160 Gayangos, Pascual de, 385, 400 Plate, 163, 165, 166 Gemito, Vincenzo, 97, 99 Roman, 151-154 Genii river, 108 Stained and painted, 154-155 Gentil, Juan, 392 Syrian, 153, 156 Gentili family. Coat of arms of, 123 Valencian, 159, 166 George, Saint, 278 Venetian, 155, 158, 159, 161, 162 Georgian style, 268, 269 Visigothic, 154 German influence, 140, 160, 164 Glockner, Thomas, 394 Germán Llorente, Bernardo, 26 Goa, India German sculpture in Spain, 73, 74-75 Cabinets, 260-261 Gerona (A825), 52 Ivories from, 94 Gerona Textiles from, 293 Cathedral. Retablo, 184-185 Goblets Museo Provincial, 151 *Glass (T353), 158 Gerson, Jean Charlier de. Del menyspreu (Hae- Pottery (E616), 120 bier 294), 384 Godoy, Armand. Portrait Bust (D1008), 97 Gesamtlialalog der u)iegendruc\e, 384 Godoy, Manuel de, prince of the Peace, 34, 340 Gesso, 253 Gol, Josep, 167 Gestoso y Pérez, José, 257 Golden Fleece, Order of the, 18, 139, 163 Getafe (A672), 39 Gómez, Juan, 234 Gil, Juan, 236 Gómez de Navia, José, 338, 340 Gil Blas see Le Sage, Alain René González, Juan Antonio, 236 Gilbert, Master, 66 González Berruguete, Pedro, 8 422 INDEX González de la Rosa, Professor, 397 Greek design, 269, 270 González Lebraco or Serrano, Bartolomé, 18 Greek influence, 59, 104, 106, 151 González Velázquez, Antonio, 339 Greeks, 57-58, 59, 104-105, 151 Gordonio, Bernardus de. Lilio (Haebler 300), 385 Grenoble. Musée, 20 Gormaz (Soria) Gricci, Carlos, 140 Church of San Esteban, Veil of Hishâm II, 273 Gricci, Felipe, 140, 142 Excavations at, 104 Gricci, José, 140, 141 Gorricio, Gaspar. Contemplaciones (Haebler 301) Grizio, Gaspar de, 357 384 Guadalajara. Palace of the Infantado, 218 Gorricio, Melchior, 377, 384, 386 Guadalquivir river, 57, 108, 109 Gosselin, Edmond, 335 Guadalupe, Monastery of, 15, 20, 75 Gothic period, 3-9, 68-76, 184-191, 217, 218- Guadameciles, 251, 261 226, 235, 243-248, 280-283 Guadarrama mountains, 41, 46 Gothic style, 78, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, Guadiana river, 46 125, 129 Guardiola, José, 144 Gottheil, Richard, 359 Guarrazar, Treasure of, 175-178 Goya, Javier, 332, 334 Guas, Juan, 75 Goya y Lucientes, Francisco José de, 31-36, 41, Guasconi Goat of arms 123 46, 270, 287, 328, 330-335, 337, 339, 340, 341, family. of, 343-344, 349, 350 Guasp family, 323 Bust of Gudiol i (D960), 96 Cunill, Mossèn Josep, 323 Drawings, 337, 339 Güell Collection, Barcelona, 91 Etchings, 330-335, 337, 340 Guerbin, Louis, 390, 393, 394 Lithographs, 343-344 Guerra, Eugenio, 88-89 Monument 96 Guijo, Enrique, 146 to, Paintings, 31-35, 341 Guilds Portraits of, 34, 330, 331, 333, 350 Carpenters', 4, 118, 243-244, 266, 270 Prints after, 339, 341 Glass makers', 155 Goyena Collection, 214 Ironsmiths', 217 Goyeneche, Juan de, 163, 378 Jet carvers', 92-93 El Grabador al aguafuerte, 341, 342 Potters', 129-130, 135 Granada Shoemakers', 196-197 Albaicín, 145 Silversmiths', 184, 200, 210 Alhambra Palace see Alhambra, Granada Tassel makers', 119 Casa de los Tiros, 82 Guillemardet, Ambassador, 33 Cathedral, 25 Guilleville, Guillaume de. El pelegrino (Gallardo 4479), 385 Heads of saints, 90 363 Museo Guiones, Arqueológico, 216 Palacio de los 114 *Guipúzcoa (Al 814), 46 Alijares, Gumiel, de, 400 Pottery industry of, 113-114, 145 Diego Gutiérrez, Juliano. Cura 386 Silk woven at, 179, 294 (Haebler 315), Gutiérrez, Nicolás, 133 Granados y Campiña, Enrique. Life Mask (D967), 97 Guzmán, Francisco de, 366, 367 Grande y Buylla, Félix, 210 A Gypsy (Dm), 97 Graner y Arrufi, Luis, 41 La Granja de San Ildefonso (Segovia) H , wood carver, 366, 390 Gardens, 91 Hadrian, 60 Glass industry of, 160, 163, 164-166 Haebler, Konrad. Bibliografia ibérica, 367-403 Palace, 270 Haes, Carlos de, 41, 342 Granollers. Retablo of Saint Stephen, 6 Hagenbach, Pedro, 364, 377, 378, 386, Granvelle, Antoine Perrenot, cardinal, 1 6, 17 Hain, Ludwig Friedrich Theodor, 376 Gratia Dei, Pedro. Blason (Haebler 304), 385 Hakim II, 61, 112 Gravestones, Hispano-Moresque, 63 Halaf, 61 El Greco see Theotocópuli, Doménico Haly, François, 139 423 HANDBOOK Hampton Court Palace (England). Portrait of Huerta, Moisés de, 97 Catalina Micaela, 301 Huesca Handwriting, 371-372 Cathedral, 205 Hanequín, Diego, 222 Retablo of Saint Anne, 81 Haseltine, Herbert, 99 Romanesque sculpture, 66 Hassam, Childe, 52 Hugo, Victor Marie, comte, 39 *Head of Saint Francis (A84), 14 Huguet, Jaume, 5, 6 *Head of Saint John the Baptist (D823), 90 Hunterian Museum see Glasgow *Head of Saint Paul (D824), 90 Huntington, Anna Vaughn (Hyatt), 100 [405 Heber, Richard, 380 Huntington, Archer Milton, 153, 379-380, 394, The Heir Curo (Al862), 52 Huntington, Henry Edwards, 405 Henry II, of Castilla and León. Charters Huntington reprints, 379, 394, 399 (B8, BIO), 355 Hurus, Juan, 366, 367,379, 397, 402-403 Henry IV, \ini of Castilla and Leon, 8, 77, 355 Hums, Pablo, 378, 379, 383, 386, 390, 402-403 Henry VII, of England, 357, 360 Hutches, 244, 252 Letter (BI5), 360 Huth, Henry, 375 Herbst, Magnus, 394 Hutz, Leonardo, 378, 402, 403 Herculaneum, Excavations at, 31, 142, 269 Heredia y Livermoore, Ricardo, conde de Ben- havis, 367, 368, 385, 388, 405, 406 I .D.", wood carver, 366, 391 Hermes (D202), 60 Ibarra y Ruiz, Pedro, 369 Hernández, Roque, 127 Ibiza. Cathedral, 187 Hernández brothers, 210 Ibn Sa'ïd, 113 Herrera, Francisco de, the Elder, 21, "hXI-yLZ Iconografía española see Carderera y Solano, Herrera, Francisco de, the Younger, 328 Valentín Herrera, Pedro de, 127 Idrisi, , 291 Herrera Barnuevo, Sebastián de, 88 Illuminators, 360, 361, 363 Herreran style, 232, 255 La Ilustración española y americana, 326 Herreros, Manuel de los, 265 An Imagen de Vestir (D31 ), 90-91 Hibbert, , 378 *The Immaculate Conception (A85), 28 Híjar, 386-387 Imprenta Real, Madrid see Madrid Híjar, Duke of, 139 Incense Boat (R3087), 197 Hildesheim treasure see Berlin Incense Burners Hishâm II. Veil, ITi Pottery (E812, E813, E814), 138 Hispano-Flemish style, 73-75 Silver (R3008), 206 Hispano-Moresque Capital (D215), 63 Incident in the Life of a Saint (D68), 91 Hispano-Moresque Gravestone (D253), 63 "Incipit", 365, 369 *Hispano-Moresque Ivory Box (D752), 61-62 Incunabula, 364-403 Hispano-Moresque Marble Basin (D213), 63 Index lihrorum prohilitorum, 397 [S53) Hispano-Moresque style, 113-125,145-146,159- Indo-Portuguese cabinets see Cabinets (S52, 160, 179-180, 247, 248, 273-278 Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique. Portrait Historia de la villa 36 y corte de Madrid see Amador (A286), de los Ríos, José Iñiguez de Biedma, Juan, 292 Holbein, Hans, 278 Initials, 380, 390, 394 Holograph letters, 355-356, 360-361 Inkwell, Pottery (E985), 134 *Holy family (A74).] 2, 13 Inlay, 246, 248, 249, 252, 253, 260 *(A78), 11 Innocent X, pope, 24 The Holy Simeon An Evangelist also known Institut d'estudis catalans see Barcelona see as The Holy Simeon Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan see Madrid Holy-Water Stoups, Pottery (E846, E847), 143 Iron Age, 57, 104 The Honeymoon (A307), 42 Irving, Washington, 400 Hontanas (Burgos), Church. 186 The Alhamhra, 53 Hores de la setmana sancta (Haebler 317), 378 Isaac, abbot of Stella. De religione (Haebler 325), Houasse, Michel Ange, 30 386 424 INDEX Isabel I, queen of Spain, 8, yi, 116,125, 153, 188, Jean d'Arras. Historia (Desbarreaux p, 74), 388 192, 202, 282, 355, 401 Jeremiah (A 1860), 6 Isabel II, queen of Spain, 147, 350 Jerez de la Frontera Portraits (A248, A287), 37 Lace, 308 Isabel d'Este, 399 Monastery. Reja, 232 Isabel Farnese, queen of Spain, 163 Jerez de los Caballeros, Manuel Pérez de Guz- Isabel of Bourbon, queen of Spain, 330, 355 mán y Boza Liaño Aubarede, marquis of, 402, Portrait (A 106), 23 405, 406 Portrait. After Velázquez (QS538), 330 Jerome, Saint, 286, 287, 383, 405 [388 Isabel of Portugal, empress consort of Charles V Jerome, Saint. Las vidas (Haebler 335/5, 336), Letter (B98), 360 Jeronimites, Order of, 131 Portrait (A90, A1798), 16 Jet carvings, 92-94 *Portrait Medallion (D276), 82 Jewelry, 172, 175, 177, 198-199, 203 Isabel of Valois, queen of Spain, 198 Jiménez Aranda, José, 40 Isaiah (A 1860), 6 Jiménez de Cisneros, Francisco, cardinal, 192, Isidore, Saint, 46 377, 392, 398 Isidore, Saint, hp. of Sevilla, 111, 176, 178 Jiménez de Préjano, Pedro, hp. Confutatorium Italian influence, 126-127, 128, 129, 130, 133, (Haebler 712), 396 140,141,142,158,159,229, 280 Joan ofAre, 100 Itálica Johannes. Comprehensorium (Haebler 339), 388- Excavations at. 111, 152, 153 389 Roman sculpture from, 59-60 John the Baptist, Saint, 244 Ivories John I, of Aragón, 185, 244 Hispano-Moresque, 61-63, 65 John 1, king of Castilla, 323 Phoenician, 57 John II, k'^g of Castilla and León, 8, 391 *Ivory Tablet (D513), 57 Charter (B7), 355 Romanesque, 65 John II, king of Portugal, 402 Spanish and Portuguese Colonial, 94-95 The John G. Johnson Collection, Philadelphia, 7 Jaca Johnson, Alfred Forbes, 390 Joly, Gabriel, 81 Cathedral, 181 114 Retablo of Saint Anne, 81 Jones, Owen, Romanesque sculpture, 66 Jordán, Esteban, 84, 87 183 Jaccaci, Augusto Floreano Jorge, Maestro, Sketches for On the Trail of Don José, Juan, 239 (Quixote, by Daniel Urrabieta Vierge, 40 Joseph, Saint, 138, 244 Jacob hen Asher Toledo Josephus, Flavius. Guerra of [Indicador] (Haebler (Haebler 344), 389 329), 386 Jousse, Mathurin, 236 *Jacob's Ladder (A2148), 24-25 Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchor de Jacomart, 5 Bookplate, 335 Jacquard loom, 295 Portrait, 33 Jaguar Group (D359), 100 Juan de Aragon, ahp. ofCagliari, 72 James, Saint Santiago Funerary Urn (D286), 71-72 see James of the Marches, Saint, 267 Juan of Austria, Don, 249 James I, of Aragon, 116, 274, 323, 374 Holograph letter (B275), 356, 360 Jars Juan of Castilla, infante of Spain, 246 Glass (T426, T445), 165 Juana, queen of Spain, 301, 359-360 Pottery Juana of Portugal, 250 *(E818),131,132 Juanes, Juan de, 12 *(E819), 131 Jug, Pottery (E250), 107 (E994), 134 Juni, Isaac de, 83 (El 032), 147 Juní, Juan de, 83, 84, 86, 87 Jars, Covered Junta, Philippe de, 383 *(E680-E681). 121 Justa, Saint, 148 HANDBOOK al-Kabiç, Salomon ibn, 387 Lambert, A., 383, 388 Kalmdario manualy Guía deforasieras de Madrid, Lameyer, Francisco, 326 341 Lamps Ketham, Johannes de. Epílogo (Haebler 246), Class (T359), 159 389 Pottery Keys, 218-219, 237 (E55), 106 (RI 8, R22, R23, RI 88, RI91), 233 (El 80), 107 (R250), 218 Silver (R3000), 205 *Aragonese (R41), 218 Lana, Jaume, 7 King, Georgiana Goddard, 360 Lancret, Nicholas, 141 Knipfíer, Christian, 139 Landscape (AI 23, Al 29, A543), 38 Knitting, 306 (A671), (A778), 39 Knockers The Lantern, Cathedral, Tarragona (A2033), 41 (R48), 220 Lantern Bracket (R176), 237 (R50), 225 *Lapeña, Manuel, marquis of Bondad Real. Por- *(R55), 220 trait (A99), 33 (R56), 228 Lapis lazuli, 194 (R70), 226 Lara, Manrique de, 3rd duJ^e of Nâjera, 16 (R73), 227 The Last Supper (D7), 80 *(R91), 219 Laurana, Francesco, 81, 82 *(R96), 225 Laurence, Saint, 131 (R99), 228 Laws, Sumptuary, 202-203,249, 250,258 (RllO), 226 Lawson, Ernest, 52 *(R111), 224 Lázaro Collection, Madrid, 201, 249 (R122), 228 Leather, 244, 246, 249, 251, 263, 268, 269, 289, (R124), 236 293, 363-364 (R125), 234 Cordovan, 251, 261 (R128), 227 Ledesma Núñez de Prado, Diego de. Coat of (R131), 232 arms of, 133 (R136), 237 Le Carree, Mme. Maurice, 334 Kuehne, Max, 52 Legend of the Knight of Cologne, 384 Kwan Yin, 95 Le Moyne, Pedro. Galería de mugeres fuertes, 339 Lent, Allegory of see La Quaresma Lace, 299-311 León Aloe, 303 Cathedral, 69-70, 192, 232 Binche, 308 Chests, 245 Bobbin see Bobbin lace Church of Santa Maria del Mercado, 216 Caul, 306 Colegiata de San Isidoro, 66, 69, 179,181, 192, Chantilly, 309 216 Mechlin. 306, 308 Ivory-carving at, 65 Needle Needle lace Monastery of San Marcos, 82 see Paraguayan, 303 Sculpture at, 83 Lace-making centres, Spanish, 305-306,308-309, León Pinelo, Antonio de, 383 311 *Leonese Peasants (A297), 44 Lace making in Spain see also Bobbin lace; Leonese school Cadeneta; Drawn work; Needle lace; Network; Retablo (A4), 10 Punto de aguja Leoni, Leone, 85 Lace Pillows (H6132, H6133), 310 Leoni, Pompeo, 85-86 Lacquer, 263, 267 Lérida Lady of Elche, 58-59, 171, 175 Church of San Lorenzo, 71 Replica (D1204), 58, 97 Museu del Seminari, 191 Lafond, Paul, 337 Old Cathedral, 71 Lagartera (Toledo), Drawn work at, ,304 Pottery from, 147 Lamaisón, Pedro, 193 School of, 70-71 426 INDEX Lerma, Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, López Mezquita, José María, 50, 51 Isl duke of, 375 López y Portaña, Vicente, 34, 344, 350 Lerma family. Tombs, 85 Lorente, Elena Sorolla de. Collection, Madrid, 45 Le Sage, Alain René Lorente, Victoriano. Collection, Madrid, 45 Aventuras de Gil Blas de Saniillana, 326 Lottery sheets see Aleluyas El diablo cojuelo, 326 Louis of Brignoles, Saint, bp. of Toulouse, 267 Letras de compás, 361 Louis XIII, of France, 285, 292 Letters of indulgence, 379, 382 Louis XIV, ki^S of France, 262, 268 Leyva, Martín de. Portrait (A86), 24 Louis XV, of France, 268, 269, 338 Li, Andrés de. Reportorio (Haebler 20Ibis), 390 Louis XVI, kif^é of France, 269 Thesoro (Haebler 200), 390 Lozano, , 114 Liber processionum (Haebler 557), 379 Lucas y Padilla, Eugenio, 35-36, 334, 337, 338 Liédena, Marquis and Señor of, 381 Lucena, Juan de. Vita beata (Haebler 368), 391 Lila, Bartolomé de, 385 ^Lucienne Bréval as Carmen (A290), 47 Lima Lucius Aurelius Verus, Supposed Portrait of Cathedral, 267 (D205), 60-61 Monastery of San Francisco, 258, 266 Ludolphus de Saxonia. Lo segon del Cartoxa Limoges, 182 (Haebler 375), 391 Linen and Cotton Fragments, Pre-Roman Luke, Saint, 244 (H926), 273 Lull, Ramón. Ars breüis (Haebler 379), 391 Lion Attacking a Prostrate Ox (E878), 140 Lumley, John Savile, 335 L/ons (D323-D324), 100 Lumpiaque (Zaragoza), Pottery from, 147 Lisbon Luna, Alvaro de, condestable of Castilla and León, Earthquake. November 2nd, 1755, 293 37, 75, 355 Mark of, 207 Luque Fajardo, F. de. Relación de la fiesta...en Lithographs, 342-350 Sevilla a la beatificación del glorioso S. Ignacio, Livia Drusilla, Supposed Portrait of (D203), 60 328 Llanes (Oviedo). Church of Santa Maria, 201 Luschner, Juan, 364, 372 Llanos, Hernando de, 10 Lydig, Mrs. Philip M., 47 Lleopart, Pere, 207 Lyell, James Patrick Ronaldson, 367, 372, 374- Llorens Artigas, Josep, 144 375, 378, 391 Llorente Montero, Juan, 234 Lyons. Musée Historique des Tissus, 287 Lluchmayor, Bull's head from, 59 Locker Lampson, Frederick, 405 jVlacaya Collection, Barcelona, 151, 159, 162 Locks (RI27, RI37), 235 MacCarthy-Reagh, Justin de, count, 378 Locks, Chest Madrazo y Agudo, José de, 36, 345, 346 *(R112), 223 Portrait (A682), 36 *(Rn4), 235 Madrazo y Carreta, Raimundo de, 40 (R118,R121), 223 Madrazo y Carreta, Ricardo de, 40-41 Loizelet, Eugène, 333, 334 Madrazo y Kuntz, Federico de, 36-37, 40, 346, London 347 British Museum, 30, 81, 174, 337, 370, 398 Portraits National Gallery, 20 (A278), 36 Victoria and Albert Museum, 95, 156, 160, (Al 784), 37 203, 246, 261,278 Madrazo y Kuntz, Luis de, 38 Loo, Louis Michel van, 30 Madrazo y Kuntz, Pedro de, 342 López, Iñigo, Tomb of, 126, 127 Portrait (Al 783), 37 López, Simón, 236 Madrid López de Ayala, Pedro, 381 Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, 12, López de Gámiz, Pedro, 84 19,31,35, 36, 40,91,99, 332, 334, 350 López de Sedano, J. J. Parnaso español, 340 Academia de la Historia, 173, 273 López de Toledo, Diego, 375 Academia Española, 335 "Tomb of, 79 Armería, 176, 190 López Enguídanos, Tomás, 340 Banco de España, 31 427 HANDBOOK Madrid {continued) Manresa. Retablo of the Pentecost, 3 Biblioteca Nacional, 30, 323,327,328,337,343, Mansilla, Bias de, 236 350, 378 Manso, Aloy de, 221 Cathedral of San Isidro, 234 Mantillas, 307, 309-310 Chapel of Gutierre de Carvajal, bp. of Piasen- *(H6110), 309,310 eia, 133 (H6258),310 Church of San Antonio de la Florida, 341 Manual del soldado español en Alemania, 343 Church of San Cayetano, 236 Manuel I, of Portugal, 402 Church of San Gines, 38 Manuel II, ^ing of Portugal, 402 Círculo de Bellas Artes, 333 Manuscripts, 353-363 Cofradía Sacramental de San Sebastián, 137 Illuminated, 353, 355, 358,359, 360, 361-363 Diario de Madrid, 265, 333 Manzanares lace patterns, 131 Glass fairs, 161 Manzano y Mejorada, Victor, 37 Glass shops, 164 Maps see América meridional; Atlas marítimo Imprenta Real, 338 de España Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan, 93, 96, 156, Maps, Manuscript, 313-319 201 Marakesh, Minaret of, 299-300 Monastery of the Holy Trinity, 89 Marañón y Posadillo, Gregorio Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 88, 174, 175, Portrait (Al 935), 45 176,179,181,187,199,215, 248, 275 Portrait Bust (D959), 96 Museo de Arte Moderno, 337 Marchena (Sevilla). Parish church treasury, 197 Museo de Artes Decorativas, 163 Marciano, bp. of Ecija, 111 Museo de Sorolla, 45, 96, 264 Marco, Master, 74 Museo Nacional del Prado, 16, 21, 23, 33, 36, Marcuello, Andrés, 196 52,198 Margaret of Austria, duchess of Parma Museo Nacional de Artes Industriales, 262 Letter (B104), 360, 361 Porcelain shop, 142 Portrait (A88), 17 Real Fábrica de Platería, 208, 209 Margaret of Austria, queen of Spain, 18, 203, 330 Royal Palace, 27, 30,31, 140, 141 Portrait. After Velazquez (QS536), 330 Royal workshops of cabinet making, 269, 270 Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands, School of, 27-30, 236, 257 246 Sculpture at, 85, 88, 90, 91 Maria Barrientos (D842), 97 Silversmiths, 206 Maria de Luna, consort of Martin I, king of Ara- Maella, Mariano Salvador de, 30 gón, 117 Maestrazgo, Artist from the, 4 María of Castilla, consort of Alfonso V, king of Maggiolo, Baldassáre di, 317 Aragón, 120, 121, 276 Mahamud (Burgos). Parish church. Retablo María of Hungary, empress of the Holy Roman mayor, 84 Empire. Portrait (A93), 23 Mahogany, 260,268 Maria (Almería), Glass industry of, 160 Maimón Zalmati, Salomon ben, 387, 395-396 Maria and Her Grandmother (A27), 44 A Maja (D840), 97 *Maria Cristina, queen of Spain. Portrait (A29), Málaga, Pottery industry of, 113 40 Malaspina, Alessandro, 336 Maria Cristina de Borbón, queen of Spain, 40, Mallorca 346, 349 Early civilization of, 59 Portraits (A 109, A281), 37 Enamels from, 184 Maria Luisa of Orleans, queen of Spain, 28 Maluenda (Zaragoza). Retablo of Saint Justa and Portrait (A64), 29 Saint Rufina, 8 Maria Luisa of Parma, queen of Spain. Aleluya Malvarrosa (Valencia). Monument to Sorolla, 96 (QS5670), 325 Mañara, Miguel de, 27 Maria Luisa Fernanda, infanta, 350 Manfredi, Lelio, 399 Mariana of Austria, queen of Spain, 23, 28 Manises, Pottery industry of, 117, 118, 120, 125, Marie Antoinette, queen of France, 269 145-146 Marineus, Lucius, 161 Manolas (QS1684), 337 Marinot, Maurice, 167 428 INDEX Marquetry, 260-261 Méndez, Francisco, 383 Martí, Bartolomé, hp. of Segorbe and cardinal, Mendieta, Fray Jerónimo de, 133 Coat of arms of, 118 Mendoza family. Coat of arms of, 126 Martin I, of Aragón, 117 Meneses Ossorio, Francisco, 26 Martines, Joan, 317 Mengs, Anton Rafael, 30, 35, 36, 338 Martínez, Francisco, 231 Mercè, Antonia, La Argentina. Statuette (D976), Martínez, José, 25 99 Martínez, Sebastián, 33 La Merced, Order of, 131 Martínez Dampiés, Martín, 383 Coat of arms, 20 Martínez Guijarro, Fernán, 125, 127 Mérida (Extremadura) Martínez Montañés, Juan, 89-90 Glass from, 153 Martínez Ruiz, José see Azorín Pottery from, 107, 110 Martínez y Barrio, Antonio, 208-209 Roman sculpture from, 59 Martire d'Anghiera, Pietro, 376 Mesonero Romanos, Ramón de, 324 Martorell, Mossèn Johanot, 398 Mexico Mary Tudor, queen of England, 17, 290 Chairs (S21,S22), 268-269 Marzal de Sas, 4 Glass exported to, 165 The Mass of Saint Martin (A9), 8 Glass industry of, 166 *Maté Cup, Silver (R3024), 206 Guilds, 266 Mateo, Master, 66 Ivories from, 94-95 Mater Dolorosa Pottery industry of, 133-136, 146 (D66), 87-88 Silverwork from, 205 *(D90), 67, 68 Michael, Saint, 155, 287 Matheron, Laurent, 344 Michael Angelo, 84 Maura y Montaner, Antonio, 342 Michelet, Jules, 39 Maura y Montaner, Bartolomé, 341, 342, 343, Milà y Fontanals, Manuel. Portrait Bust(D974), 344 97 Mayer, August Liebmann, 29 Millán, Pedro, 127 Meckenem, Israhel von, 390 Los Millares (Almería), Excavations at, 104 Medea's prediction, 397 *Miniature of a Lady (A310), 14 Medina Azzahra (Córdoba) *Miniature of a Man (A311), 14 Ivory box from, 61 Miquel, Pere, 394-395, 398, 400 Pottery from, 112, 115, 117 Miquel y Badia, Francisco, 278 Medina de Rioseco. Monastery of San Francisco, Collection, Barcelona, 282 230 Mir Trinxet, Joaquim, 41 Medina del Campo (Valladolid) Miraflores, Cartuja de, 8, 246 Glass fairs, 162 Miraveche (Burgos), Excavations at, 213 Medina Elvira (Granada) Miró, José Ignacio, 394 Doors from, 216 *Missale mixlum (Haebler 446), 376-378 Pottery from, 112, 115 Missale romanum, 358-359 Medina Sidonia, Duke of, 285 Missals, 358-359, 376-378, 379 Medinaceli, Duke of, 250 Mistral, Gabriela. Portrait (A2635), 50 Medinaceli (Soria), Pottery from, 112 Mitre, Bartolomé. Portrait (A45), 40 Mehrerau, Monastery of, 65 Mocarte, Pedro Mejia, Fernando. Libro (Haebler 411), 392 *Portrait (Al 890), 34, 38 Melchizede\ (A1860), 6 Mogrovejo family. Coat of arms of, 257 Meléndez, Lorenzo, 89 Moissac. Abbey-church of Saint-Pierre. Cloister, Meléndez Valdés, Diego, abp. of Zamora, 222 66 Melgarejo, Juan, 369 Monastery of El Paular, Guadarrama (A220, Mélida, Enrique, 334 A222), 41 Memling, Hans, 10 Le Monde illustré, 39 Mena, Juan de, 391 Mondragón, Iron ore from, 215 Coblas (Sánchez 16), 391-392 Monfort, Antoni, 345 Mena y Medrano, Pedro de, 90 Monistrol, Marquis of, 244 HANDBOOK The Mon\ Juan Vilas (A1861), 52 Murcian Types (A3057), 51 Monstrances Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban, 18, 25, 26, 27, 148, *(R3029), 202 258, 259, 328, 330,339 (R3032), 204 Murillo, Mariano, 385, 394 Monte Bernorio (Palència), Excavations at, 213 Murillo, School of, 26 Montero, Jerónimo, 128 Murphy, James Cavanah, 114 Montes, Pedro, 266-267 El Museo universal, 326 Montesa, Order of, 4 *My Cousin Cándida (A291), 47 Montpellier, Enamels from, 184 Mî/Funera/(A1983),51,52 * Montserrat, Monastery of, 158, 372, 375 The MysticalMarriage ofSaint Catherine{D820), Moors, 113,114, 116,125, 129,146 91 Mora y Villalta, Alonso. Portrait (A9I), 24 Moragues, Pere, 185, 186 Nailheads Morales, Luis de, 11-12 (R3, R6, R19), 226 Morales, Luisa de, 328 _(R38, R46), 218 Moratin, Leandro Eernández de, 333 Nanduti, 303 Morel, Juan, 238 Naples Morel Fatio, Alfred Paul Victor. Portrait (A38), Castel Nuoeo, 125 40 Cathedral, 18 Moreno, Miguel José, 389 Church of San Martino, 18 Morgan, John Pierpont, 379-380 Museo Naliónale, 19 Collection, New York, 217 Sculpture at, 71 Moro, Antonio, 16-17 Nasrid coat of arms, 113 Morón de la Frontera (Sevilla), Visigothic tablet Nativity group, 95 from, 111 A Nativity Panel (AlO), 4 Morraixa, Glass (T504), 166, 167 A^a¿ure(A2118), 49 Mosaic, Roman (Ul), 106 Naval (Huesca), Pottery from, 147 Mosaic from Alcolea del Rio (A1309), 106 *Navarra {k\m),A5 Moses (A 1860), 6 Needle lace, 304-305 Moustiers (France), Potters from, 138 Needlework see Embroidery Mudejar ceilings, 64 Nepomuceno, José María, 375 Mudejar Corbels (D49-D60), 64 Nets, 299 Mudejar Doors Network, 299-301 (D45, D70, *D71), 64 (H5934), 300 Mudejar Stalactite Pendants (D72-D74), 64-65 *(H5935), 299, 300 Mudejar style, 64-65, 73, 115-117, 129, 133, (H6050-H6051), 300 159-161, 245-246, 247, 248, 250, 255, 260, (H6055), 301 278, 279, 280 (H6070), 300, 301 Mudejar wood-carving, 64-65 H6088), 300 Muel (Zaragoza), Pottery from, 145 (*H6076, New York Mug, Glass (T429), 165 Church of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza, Múgica, Carlos, 349 210 Muhammad I, kjn^ of Granada, 274 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 5, 76, 181, Muhammadan art, 61-63, 218-220, 228, 236 335 Muhammadan conquest, 61, 111-112, 154, 178, The Cloisters, 71 273 Public Library, 343 Muhammadan influence, 111-120, 121, 129, 133, Reinhardt Galleries, 47 145-146,156,159-160,243,245-246,248,252, Nicolau, Pedro, 4, 5 253, 254, 257, 261 Nicolaus dePlove. Tractatus 63-64 (Haebler 51, 5Ibis), Muhammadan joinery, 392 Muñoz, Sebastián, 29 Nicolo, Nicolaus de, 317 Murât, Joachim, 34 Niculoso Pisano, Francisco, 126, 127, 128 Murcí, Juan, 125 Niño de Castro, Alonso, 360 Murcí family, 125 Nivel, Juan, 208 430 INDEX Nogales, Monastery of Nuestra Señora de, 85 Osuna, Pedro de Alcántara Téllez Girón y Pa- Nogués, Xavier, 167 checo, 9th duke of, 339 Nolanus, Hieronymus, 361 Osuna (Sevilla), Pottery from, 110 Noli Me Tangere (A203]), 5 Ovidius Naso, Publius. Transformacions (Hae- Nordenskiold, Nils Adolf Erik,/r/Aerre, 315 bler 507), 395 /Voso/ros (Al 718), 50 Oviedo. Cathedral. Cámara Santa, 66, 180, 181 Nuevo Baztán (Madrid), Glass industry of, 163 Pablos, Juan, 384 Numancia, Excavations at, 104, 214 Pacheco, Beatriz, 44 Numismatics in Spain, Greek, 58 Pacheco, Francisco, 21, 25 Núñez de Prado see Ledesma Núñez de Prado, Pacheco, 396 Diego de Juan, Núñez Padlocks, Delgado, Gaspar, 89, 90 Hispano-Moresque Nuremberg cabinets, 258 (R4000), 179 (R4001), 179, 180 Palacio Valdés, Armando. Portrait (Al 968), 50 Obres e trobes, 372, 388-389 Palafox y Mendoza, Juan, bp. of Puebla de los Ocaña. Church of San Pedro. 358 Tombs, 75-76 Angeles, Ochando, Alfonso José, 138 Palència, Fernández de, 396 Ocharte, Universal Pedro, 384 vocabulario (Haebler 510), 366, 395 Falencia Ochoa, Eugenio de, 346 Ochoa de Chinchetru y Fernández de Cathedral, 179,217, 231,250 Zúñiga, Bernabé de. Portrait (A2006), 28-29 Chests, 245 An Old Córner, Segovia (A821), 52 Palermo. Cathedral, 30 Old Woman with Rosary (El 010), 144-145 Palha, Fernando, 367 Olerys, Joseph, 138 Palma de Mallorca Oliva, , 133 Cathedral, 187 Olivares, Gaspar de Guzmán, count-dul^e of, 21, Palmart, Lambert, 364, 369, 372, 383, 389, 395, 25, 330 401 *Portrait (Al04), 21, 22 Palmella (Portugal), Excavations at, 104 Portrait. After Velázquez (QS539), 330 Palmerani, Domingo, 140 ^Oliveros de Castilla (Haebler 494), 393 *Pamfili, Camillo, cardinal. Portrait (AlOl), 23, 24 Olives, Bartolomeo, 317 Olives, 317, Pamplona. Cathedral. Jaume, 319 Capilla de Santa Cruz, 217 Olives, Joannes, 317 Panels to be from the Tomb of Garcia Ollería Supposed (Valencia), Glass industry of, 159 Osorio (D307-D311), 76 On a Balcony (A2146), 36 Paniagua, Clara, Effigy of, 88 Ordenanças (Haebler 501), 397 El Panorama, 326 Ordóñez, Bartolomé, 83 Pantoja de la Cruz, Juan, 17-18, 252 Orense. Cathedral, 182 Panza, Sancho, 405 Orsini inventory, 14 Papal Order of Christ, 18 Ortega, Calixto, 326 Papelera (S50), 252, 255, 260 Ortiz, Alfonso. Los tratados (Haebler 503), 394 Paravicino y Arteaga, Hortensio Félix, 89 Ortiz, Pablo, 75 Pareerisa, Francisco Javier, 348 Osma, Pedro de. Comentaria. ca.\All?, 388 Pardo Bazán, Emilia, countess of Pardo Bazân. Osma (Soria), Excavations at, 104 Portrait (Al 940), 45 Osma y Scull, Guillermo Joaquín de, 114 El Pardo, Palace of, 155, 270 Portrait Bust (D961), 96 *Pareja, Juan de. Portrait (A1897), 24 Osmont, Jean Baptiste Louis, 400 Paret, Luis, 340 Osorio, Garcia, Tomb of, 75-76 Paris, Pierre, 215 Ossorio y Bernard, M. Galería biográfica de artis- Paris tas españoles del siglo XIX, 326 Musée de Cluny, 176, 177, 301 Osuna, Pedro de Alcántara Téllez Girón y Beau- Musée des Arts fort, ¡Ith Décoratifs, 178 duke of, 326 Musée du Luxembourg, 46 431 HANDBOOK Paris (conlinmi) Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, 306 Musée National du Loutre, 174 Peyró Mezquita, Antonio, 144-145 Universal Exposition, 1900, 42 Philip, archduke of Austria, 359-360 Paris de Meyzieu, Jean Baptiste, 400 Portrait (A1953), 359 Parix, Juan, 388 Philip II, k^ng of Spain, 12, 15-16, 17, 85, 128, Passementerie, 299 155,162,197,198,203,228,231,233,249-252, Pastrana, Johannes, 388 263, 285,290, 301, 305, 356-357, 360, 361, 393 Pedro, 238 *Portrait Medallion Pastrana, (D278), 82 Patens Philip III, king of Spain, 17, 250, 258, 291, 301, 330, 360 *(R3033), 204 Portrait (A89), 18 (R3034), 202 Portrait. After Velázquez (QS535), 330 Paterna (Valencia) Philip IV, king of Spain, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, Glass industry of, 159 117-118, 125 27, 89, 258, 330 Pottery industry of, Letter 121 (B288), 355, 360 Paul V, pope, Portrait (A62), 29 El Paular. Monastery, 41 Portrait. After Velázquez (QS537), 330 P&X Philip V, king of Spain, 30, 91, 137, 162, 163, *(R3038), 193 206, 294, 378 *(R3039), 192 Philippine Islands, Ivories from the, 94 (R3040), 203, 204 Phoenicians, 57.58, 59, 105, 151, 171, 172, 173 Payo Coello, Joan, ahloi of Pohlei, 123 Picardo, Juan, 84 Peers, Edgar Allison, 391 Pidal y Mon, Alejandro. Portrait (A56), 45 Peets, Orville Houghton, 52 *Pieíà(A69), 12 Pegnitzer, Juan, 368, 394 Pilgrimage roads, 65, 182, 216 Peixotto, Ernest Clifford, 53 Pinazo, Magdalena Mitjans de, 50 Pelayo, king of Asturias, 180 Pinazo Camarlench, Ignacio. Portrait (Al 70), 41 Peñísco/a (Al 755, Al 756), 41 Pinazo Martínez, Ignacio, 58, 97 *The Penitents (A292), 46 Pinazo Martínez, José, 49-50 Pennell, Joseph, 39, 53 Portrait (A 160), 49 The Pentecost (D303), 66-67 Pinazo y Mitjans, María Luisa. Portrait (Al 58), Peralada, Castle of, 245 49 Perea, Maria de. Tomb of, 76 Pinelli, Bartolomeo, 36 Perea y Rojas, Alfredo, 326 Piot, Eugène, 389 Perea y Rojas, Daniel, 349 Pisano see Niculoso Pisano, Francisco Pereda y Salgado, Antonio, 27 Pitchers Pérez, Antonio, 37, 249 Class *(T350), 151 Pérez Bueno, Luis, 251 Pottery Pérez de Aellón, Millán, 355 (E821), 137 Pérez de Ayala, Ramón. Portrait (Al 941), 45 (El 053), 145 Pérez de Valencia, Jaime, 387 Pius IX, pope, 399 Commentum (Haebler 535), 395-396 Pizarro, Cecilio, 349 Pérez de Villavín, Juan, 353 Planas, Eusebio, 349 Pérez Pastor, Cristóbal, 367, 376 Plandiura Collection, Barcelona, 156 Pérez Villaamil, Jenaro, 41 Plantin family, 323 Perezaguas, , 333 Plaque, Pottery (El 139), 146 Perfume Bottle, Jet (D810), 94 Plasència. Cathedral, 232 Perkins, H. 1., 378 *Plateau, Pottery (E578), 123 Pésaro, Jusepe de, 127 Plateresque design, 248, 250, 254, 255, 267 Pésaro, Tomás de, 127 Peter, Saint, 286, 287 Porcelain (E3008-E3015), 142 Peter II, of Aragón, 217 Pottery Peter III, ^rng of Aragon, 72 (E501,E502), 115 Peter IV, k^ng of Aragón, 3, 71,185, 205, 280 *(E551), 123 432 INDEX Plates, Pottery (continued) Portugal, Constable of, 5 *(E577), 123 Portugal, Minister of, 400 (E589), 124 Portuguese design, 260-261 *(E651), 123, 124 Posa, Pedro, 372, 391,392, 394 (E665), 124 Post, Chandler Rathfon, 9, 281 (E746), 117 Post tenelras spero lucem, 405 (E806), 129 Postage stamps, 342 (E851), 130 Potosí, Silver ore from, 205 (E854), 133 Potter, William J., 52 (El 057), 144 Potter's marks, 108-109, 124-125, 135,141,142, (El 058), 143 144 (El 124, El 138), 146 Pottery Platters, Pottery Aëneolithic, 103-104 (E871), 137-138, 146 Alcora, 137-140, 143 (El 107), 146 Arabic, 112-113 Playing cards, 323, 326 Aragonese, 147 Pliny, the Elder, 153, 273 Bronze-Age, 104 Plutarch. Las eidas (Haebler 550), 395, 396 Catalan, 136-137, 143, 145, 147 Poblet, Monastery of Santa Maria de, 71, 118, Chinese, 128 123, 156 Dutch, 130 Podocataro, Ludovico, hp. of Capaccio, 357, 360 English, 140 Pogeti, Luis, 140 Galician, 147 Point d'Espagne, 305 Granada, 113-114, 121, 145 Pollard, Alfred William, 390 Greek, 105, 106 Pollastre, Pottery (El 035), 147 Hispano-Moresque, 113-125, 129, 145-146 Polono, Stanislao, 384, 385, 397-398 Malaga, 113, 120, 121 Pompeii, Excavations at, 142, 269, 294 Mexican, 133-136, 146 Ponce, Bartolomé, 187 Pre-Roman, 105-106 Pons Arnau, María Clotilde Sorolla de, 44 Roman, 106-111 Collection, Madrid, 45 Sevilla. 125-129, 137, 143, 145, 146, 147-148 Portrait (A27), 44 Talavera de la Reina, 128, 129-133, 137-138, Porcelain 145, 146, 257 Alcora, 139 Toledo, 133,145, 146 Buen Retiro, 140-143 Valencian, 143 Capodimonte, 140 Visigothic, 111 Chinese, 130,134, 135 Poza de la Sal. Church. Crucifix, 186 Meissen, 140 Pozo, Miguel del. Portrait (A96), 20 Sèvres, 142, 269 Pradilla y Ortiz, Francisco, 41 Porros, Glass Preboste, Francisco, 15 (T506, T507, T508), 166 Pre-Roman period, 57-59, 105-106, 151, 213- Porta, Domingo, al·lot of Pollet, Coat of arms of, 215,273 118 The Presentation (Al), 8-9 Portico of the Church ofSan Gines, Madrid (A259), Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, Miguel, marquis of 38 Estella Pórtico de la Gloria, Santiago Cathedral, Sketches Portrait (A1951), 50 for, 52 Portrait bas-relief, 144 0 Porto, Library of, 400 Portrait Bust (D986), 96 0 Porto, Mark of, 207 Printers' marks, 366,367-368,377,384, 392-393, Portolano charts, 315-319 394,400, 402-403, 404^05 Portrait medallions, 82 Printing press, 366, 367, 398 ^Portrait of a Little Girl (A108), 23, 24 Printing privilege, 386 Portrait of a Man (A 107), 26 Printing sites, 364 Portrait of a Spanish Lady (A60), 18 (A92), 29 Prints, 323-350 Portrait of My Mother (A 112), 41 Devotional, 323 ,327 433 Privilegios rodados, 353-355 R perruña", 365, 375 Procession (Al 53), 36 Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la, 341, 348 Proctor, Robert, 366, 367, 397 Radnor Collection, England, 24 Los Proverbios, 334 Raleigh, Sir Walter, Signature of, 357 Providence. Rhode Island School of Design, 25, Ramón y Cajal, Santiago 307 Portrait Plaque (D963), 96 Provinces of Spain Ranc, Jean, 30 Paintings of, 43, 45-46 Ravenna. Panel (A2139), 6 Sketches for, 45 Real Establecimiento Litográfico, 345, 346, 347 Prunes, Vincentius, 317 Real Picadero (QS1562), 338, 339 Puebla (Mexico), Pottery industry of, 134, 135, Rebecca and Eliezer, 148 146,166 Recesvinthus, Visigothic hjng of Spain, 177 Puebla de Guzmán (Huelva), Drawn work at, Recuenco (Cuenca), Glass industry of, 162-163 302 Recuerdos y bellezas de España see Parcerisa, Puente del Arzobispo (Toledo), Pottery from, F.J. 128, 133 Red Doe and Fawn (D989), 100 Puerto, Alfonso del, 323 Red Stag {Dm), 100 Puerto de Santa Maria (Cádiz). Jesuit College, Redaños, 306-307 308 (Haebler Register, 395 Pulgar, Fernando de. Claros varones Reinhart, Hans, the Elder, 82 564), 396 Reja Bands Punctuation, 355, 365, yil Punic *(R145,R146), 230, 231 art see Carthaginians 221 Punía de la Vaca, Necropolis of, 171 (R149), 305 (R153),222 Panto, 221,222 Punto de aguja, 304, 305, 307 (R160), (R169), 231 see also Needle lace Reja Cresting Reja Gate (R170), 232 (H5924), 307 Punto de bolillos, 305 Reliquaries, 183, 196, 206 also Bobbin lace (R3046), 196 see Busts, 86-87 Punto de España, 304 Rembrandt Hermanszoon van Rijn, 328, 337 see also Point d'Espagne Renaissance period, 9, 10, 12, 76-87, 119, 125- Punto de gancho, 307 127,128-129,155-158,191-202,219,222-232, (H5926-H5928), 307 248-256, 258, 259, 267, 269, 279-283, 302 Purl, 288 The Repose in Egypt (D821), 91 Putnam, Brenda, 99 Reposteros, 285 Un Puyazo (D968), 99 Requesens, Galceran de, 125 Pyrenean Sketchbooks (Al 737, Al 743, Al 744), Requesens y Zúñiga, Luis de, 17 38 Letter (B233), 360 Portrait (Al959), 17 Quaresma, La (QS5708), 324 The Resurrection (Al), 8-9 Quejigal (Salamanca), Glass industry of, 162 *(D37), 75 Quer, Francesc, 144, 167 Retablo (A4), 10 Queralt, Leonor de. Coat of arms of, 118 Retablo of the Visitation (SeviWa.. Alcázar. Chapel Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco Gómez de of the Catholic Kings), 127 Illustrations for Pablo de Segovia, the Spanish Retratos de los españoles ilustres, 338, 339, 341 sharper, by Daniel Urrabieta Vierge (A803- Revue de l'art ancien et moderne, 337 A808, A811, A813, A814), 39 Reyna, Francisco de la. Libro de albeyterta, 383 Obras, 326 Rheims. 398-400 Cathedral, 69 Quijote, Biblioteca del, 394, of (D316), 85-86 Rhode, Greek coinage of, 58 *Quiñones, Suero de. Effigy Alvarez Riaño, Alice de. Portrait (Al 61), 49 Quintero brothers see Quintero Riaño y Gayangos, Juan. Portrait (A57), 49-50 Quiroga, Gaspar de, bp. of Cuenca, 194 Ribelles y Helip, José, 340, 344 Ribelles y Palomar, José, 345 434 INDEX Ribera, José de, 18, 19, 20, 26, 328 Romanones, Alvaro Figueroa y Torres, count of Ribera, Pedro, 42 Portrait bas-relief, 144 Ribera y Fernández, Juan Antonio, 36 Portrait Bust (D985), 96 Portrait (QS5640), 326 Rome Ribera y Fieve, Carlos Luis de, 37, 347 Academy of San Luca, 18 Rico y Ortega, Bernardo, 324, 326 Castle of Sant 'Angelo, 36 Rico y Ortega, Martín, 38-39, 326 Palazzo Doria, 24 Riemenschneider, Tilman, 73 Romea, Julián, 347 Rings, Roman (R3377, R3378), 175 Rosa, G. B. D., 361 Riofrío, Palace of, 270 Rosales y Martínez, Eduardo, 37 Ríos , François de los, 400 Roselli, Petrus, 316 Ríos, Ricardo de los, 333 Rosenbach, Juan, 364, 378, 379, 383-384 Ripoll. Monastery of Santa María, 66 Roth, Ernest David, 52 Ritson, Joseph, 400 Roux, Edouard, 138 Rivas, Angel Pérez de Saavedra y Ramírez de Rubens, Peter Paul, 23, 28 Madrid, 3rd dukfi of, 346, 349, 350 Rubí, José Jordán de Urríes y Ulloa, marquis of, Romances históricos, 350 336 Rivelles see Ribelles Rudolph II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Rivero y Muñiz, Nicolás, count del Rivera. Por- Portrait (A87), 17 trait Bust (D346), 97 Ruffs, 301 Rix von Chur, Hans, 377, 384, 398-399 Rufina, Saint, 147 Robinot, Pierre, 378 Rug weaving Robinson, Florence Vincent, 52 Alcaraz, 291 Robles, Francisco de, 405 Cuenca, 291 Robles family, 257, 265 Granada Roblot Collection, Paris, 16 Las Alpujarras, 294 Roca, Lope de la, 367 Rugs Roche, Nicolás, 208 Alpujarra (H302), 294 Roclos of the Cape, Jâoea (Al 50), 42 Hispano-Moresque, 276-278 Roda (Huesca). Church of San Vicente. Retablo (H323, H325, H326), 278 mayor, 81 *(H328), 276-277 Rodrigo, Master, 73 Holbein, 278, 283 Rodrigo Vázquez Visiting the Family of Antonio Spanish Pérez in Prison (Al 785), 37 *(H301), 283 Rodríguez, Cayetano, 349 (H304), 283-285 Rodríguez, Gaspar, 231 *(H305), 291-292 Rodríguez, Jorge, 405 (H307), 283 Rodríguez de Babia, Juan, 198 (H309), 283, 285 Rodríguez de Castro, Pedro, 353 *(H310), 283, 284 Rodríguez Villar, Antonio, 97 (H311), 283 Roig, J., 144 (H312), 283-285 Rojas, Fernando dt. La Celestina (Haebler 146), 380 (H316), 283 Simón 89 (H318), 291 Rojas, de. Blessed, Ruinas de 336 Roldán, Luisa Ignacia, 91 Zaragoza, Ruiz, Juan, 194 Roldán, Pedro, 90-91 Ruiz de Castro, Leonor, 275 Rolewinck, Werner. Fasciculus temporum, 323 Ruiz de Luna, 146 Roman Juan, period, 59-61, 106-111, 151-154, 172- Rusiñol 175,213-215, 273 y Prats, Santiago, 41, 239 Thomas 44 Roman Portrait Bust (D205), 60,61 Ryan, Fortune, Roman Portrait Head (D203), 60, 61 Romances of chivalry, 364, 394, 398-400, 403 Sabunde, Raymundus de. Viola anime (Haebler Romanesque period, 65-69, 117, 154-155, 180- 590), 396-397 184,216,217, 243 Sagot, Edmond, 334 435 HANDBOOK Saguntum, Pottery of, 109 Salamanca Sahagún. Church of San Lorenzo. Retablo from Casa de las Conchas, 218 Tríanos, 83 Cathedral, 182 Sa'îd, Ibn see Ibn Sa'id Archives, 273 Saint see also individual names of saints University, 47 A Saint Salamanca, Francisco de, 229 (D3), 87 Salamanca y Mayol, José de, marquis of Sala- (D6), 92 manca, 399, 400 (D4I), 88 Sale of collection, 29 A Saint, possibly Anthony Abbot (D44), 87 Salazar de Mendoza, Pedro Saint Agatha (A98), 21 Chronica de el cardenal Don Juan Tauera, 327 Saint Anne and the Virgin (DI7), 86 Crónica de el gran cardenal de España, Don Saint Anne, the Virgin, and the Christ Child Pedro Gonçalez de Mendoga, 327 (D77), 80-81 Salceda, Gabriel de, 231 Saint Anthony of Padua and the Christ Child Salinas (Alicante), Glass industry of, 159 (A63), 27 Sallustius. La conjuración de Catalina, 339 Saint Augustine (D11 ), 84 Saltcellars *Saint Dominic (A83), 14 (R3054), 200 *Saint Francis (R3056), 196-197 (R3055), 199 Saint Francis of Assisi Salvà y Pérez, Vicente, 367, 368, 370, 388, 405, (A82), 26 406 (D65), 87 Salvador Carmona, Juan Antonio, 338-339 Saint Gregory (D12), 84 Salvador Carmona, Manuel, 338, 339, 341 Saint James the Great Salver (R3042), 207 *(A71, A72), 14 Salzillo y Alcaraz, Francisco, 92 *(D800, D801), 93 Samplers, 301, 304 Saint Jerome see also Drawn work; Embroidery *(A16, A73),9-10,14 Stitches in, 304 (D38), 83-84 San Esteban de Nogales see Nogales Saint John the Baptist (A66), 30 San Juan de la Peña, Monastery of, 66 Saint John the Evangelist (D1 ), 84-85 San Juan de las Abadesas. Colegiata. The Descent Saint of Jerusalem, Order of from the John Cross, 67 Coat of 4 San Juan del Barranco, Retablos from, 4 arms, Knights of, 4, 5 San Martín de Valdeiglesias (Madrid), Glass in- 162 Saint Joseph and the Christ Child (D750), 95 dustry of, Sevilla also known San Millán de la Saint Lucy A Saint of Cogolla. Monastery, 65 see as Saint Lucy San Servando. Castle, 41 Saint Luke (D2), 84-85 Sánchez, Francisco, 133 392 Saint Luke, Retablo of, 4 Sánchez, Juan Manuel, 367, 378, 388, *5amiMar/in 74 (D91), 73-74 Sánchez, Nufro, 199 Saint Martin Ordained Bishop (A9), 8 Sánchez Coello, Alonso, 16, 17, Saint Mary Magdalene, 86 Sánchez group, 9 92 Sandars, Horace, 215 (D30), *Saint Michael Sanger, William, 52 *Saint Michael and Saint Peter, Six panels from Sanpere y Miquel, Salvador, 381, 401 retablo of (A3), 3-4 Santa Maria de Estany, Monastery of, 117 a *A Saint of Sevilla also known as Saint Lucy Santiago, 403 (A94), 21 Order of, 291 *Saint Paul (A77), 19 Santiago de Compostela *Saint Rufina (k\m), 2] Cathedral, 66, 187 *Saint Vincent (A2031),5 Church of San Martin Pinario, 237 Sala y Francés, Emilio. Portraits (A225, A263), College for goldsmiths, 180 41 Jet carvings of, 93 436 INDEX Santiago Matamoros, 287, 288, 353, 360 The Sermon (A2119), 49 Santillana, Iñigo López de Mendoza, marquis of, Serra, Jaume, 3 391 Serra, Pere, 3 Proverbios (Haebler 427bis), 397 Serrano, Pascual, 215 Santo Domingo de Silos. Monastery, 66, 181 Serrano y Morales, José Enrique, 395 Sapienza Library, 399, 400 Serrano y Sanz, Manuel, 383 Sargent, John Singer, 52 Seventy Drawings in Sepia (A690-A759), 35 Savage, Alexander Duncan, 355 Severini, José, 326 Savile, Lord see Lumley, John Savile Sevilla *Scenes of May Third, 1808, Sketch for (A 100), Academy of drawing, 25, 27 34. 36 Alcázar, 125, 126, 127 Schepers, Carlos, 140 Cathedral, 20, 73, 74, 183, 188, 229, 328, 329 Schepers, Livio, 140 Church of Santa Marina, 114 Scribes, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366 Church of Santa Paula, 1 Tl Scrihner's magazine, 53 College of Dominican Fathers. Church of Sculpture Regina Angelorum, 128 Baroque, 87-92 Convent of La Merced, 128 Gothic, 69-76 Convent of San Francisco de Paula, 128 Greek, 59, 60 Giralda, 330 Hispano-Flemish, 73-75 Hospital of la Caridad, Tl Iberian, 58 Hospital of la Sangre, 20 Portuguese, 92 Mudejar door from, 64 Pre-Roman, 57-59 Mudejar stalactite pendants from, 64-65 Renaissance, 76-87 Museo Arqueológico Provincial, 60 Roman, 59-61 Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes, 26 Romanesque, 65-69 Pottery from, 105, 107, 108, 110, 115-116, Sicilian, 82-83 125-129, 136, 137, 143, 145,146, 147 Sea Idyl (A2%), 44 Sculpture at, 74, 90 Seal Boxes (R3052, R3053), 209 Torre del Oro, 11 Sebastian, Saint, 403 *Sevilla. Holy Weel^. Penitents (A 1809), 45 Sebastián de Borbón y Braganza, infante, 347 *Sevilla. The Bullfighters (A1810), 45 Secretaries, 255, 256 *Sevilla. The Dance (A1807), 43, 45 Sedan chairs, 250, 251 -252 El Sevillano, 347 Segorbe Sèvres see Porcelain—Sèvres Cathedral, 221 Shaker, Glass (T361), 160-161 Pottery from, 147 Shakespeare, William, 407 Segovia A Shepherd of Salamanca (A677), 39 Aqueduct, 46, 144 Sicre, Juan José, 97 Cathedral, 144 Siena, Influence of, 3 Monastery of El Parral, 44 El siglo pintoresco, 324 Printing at, 388 Signature marking, 365 Segovia (A 127), 52 Signo rodado, 353-355, 361 Segovia from the Boceguillas Road (A301 ), 41 Silhouette, Book in, 357 Segovian Peasant Girls (A3060), 44 Silk lace see Blondes Segura, Ana, 294 Silk weaving Segura, Bartolomé, 323 Almería, 274 Seilliêre, François Florentin Achille, baron, 380, Baeza, 274 394, 399 Córdoba, 274 Selma, Fernando, 338, 339-340 Granada, 294 Semanario pintoresco español, 324 Málaga, 274 Seneca, L. A. Tragédie (Proctor 5283), 397 Sevilla. 274, 294, 295 Senefelder, Alois, 342, 343 Talavera de la Reina, 294 Sera, Domenico da. Le livre de lingerie. 1584, 299 Toledo, 274, 280, 294, 295 Serís, Homero, 400, 403-407 Valencia, 290-291,294,295 HANDBOOK Silk weaving (continued) Stanhope Collection, England, 24 Zaragoza, 273 Statue of a Bishop (R3047), 204-205 Siloe, Gil de, 73 Statuette from a Crucifixion Group (D30), 92 Silversmiths' marks, 190,192,193,199,200,207, Stevenson, Edward Luther, 317 209 Still Life (kmò,k\m), 30 Simancas. Archives, 285 Stools, 243, 246 Sit, Ventura, 163-164 Stoss, Veit, 73 Sitges. Museu del Cau Ferrat, 227, 239, 263 Strabo, 273 Situla (R4417), 174 A Street in Granada (A545), 40-41 Sivert, Dionisio, 164 The Studio of Goya (A260), 41 Smith, André, 52-53 Stump work see Embroidery, High-relief Smith, George C., 261 Sugar Bowls, Glass Smith, Robinson, 404, 405, 406 (T426), 164, 165 Smith Mari, Ismaël, 97 (T445), 165 Snuffboxes, Porcelain (E3016, E3017), 140 *Summer and Autumn (E3019), 141 Snuffers Sunyer y Ciará, Ramón, 210 *(R3066), 208-209 Super-lihris, 368, 369, 382 *(R3067), 209 Supper in the House of Simon (A75), 15 Socarrat, Pottery (E735), 119 Sureda, Bartolomé, 142, 343 Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del Pais, 239 Swinthila, Visigothic \ing of Spain, 177 Solà, Antonio. Portrait (A680), 36 Swiss Sketchbooks (A1733, A1747), 38 Solano, José, 238 A Symbolic Figure (D29), 84 Solano family, 238 Syracuse, Greek coinage of, 58 Solé, Euda, 167 Solé, Núria, 167 Tablas Alfonsinas, 183 Soleinne, , 380 Tables, 246,249, 255,258-260 Soler, Miguel Cayetano, 331 (S27, S28), 260 *Solís y Rivadeneyra, Antonio de. Portrait (529), 258, 260 (A3054), 25 (530), 257, 259 Soliva, Miguel, 138 (S33), 257 Solórzano Pereira, Juan de, Effigy of, 88 (S38), 258, 260 Solsona (Lérida) *(S40), 256,259 Cathedral, 66 Tablet, Pottery (E490), 111, 112 Pottery from, 109 Talaiots, 59 Soria, Sculpture at, 67 Talavera, archpriest of, 161 Sorolla, Clotilde García de. Portraits (A294, Talavera, Gabriel de. Historia de Nuestra Señora A305), 44 de Guadalupe, "iTl Sorolla, Elena see Lorente, Elena Sorolla de Talavera de la Reina Sorolla, Maria Clotilde see Pons Arnau, María see also Pottery. Talavera de la Reina Clotilde Sorolla de Convent of Santa Catalina, 129 Sorolla y Bastida, Joaquín, 42-46, 130 Lace patterns, 131 [146 Portrait Busts Pottery industry of, 128-133, 136-138, 145, *(D962), 95, 96 Silk factories of, 294 (D971), 97 Tarragona (D1006, D1007), 96 Cathedral, 196, 221,225 Portraits (A28, A1948), 44 Roman sculpture from, 59 Statuette (D975), 99 Sculpture from, 71 Soto y Tello, Manuel, 146 Tartessos, Phoenician trading post at, 57 The Spanish Dance (A152), 52 La Tauromaquia, 333-334, 335, 343 Spanish school, 4 Taylor, J., baron, 380 Spanish Sketchbooks (A1742, A1746), 38 Tazzas, Pottery Speyer, James, 357 (E616, E629, E630, E633), 120 Spindeler, Nicolás, 364, 372, 381, 384, 398-399 (E853), 136 Stalactite Pendants, Mudejar (D72-D74), 64 Tedali family. Coat of arms of, 123 INDEX La Tène, Excavations at, 213 Velvet Brocade (H937). 292 Terra sigillata, 107, 109-110 Wool Velvet (H947), 282 Teruel Sumptuary laws for, 290, 291, 304 Paintings at, 4 Theotocópuli, Doménico kpown as El Greco, 12, Pottery from, 117, 118, 145 14, 13, 19. 46, 89, 232 Sculpture at, 81 Theotocópuli, Jorge Manuel, 14-13, 232 Textiles Theresa, Saini, 394 Ecclesiastic Tholosa, 383 Altar Frontal (H3940), 290, 291 Thomson, William George, 276 Altar Hanging (H3969). 289, 292 Thou, Jacques-Auguste de, 382 Banners *Three Boys and a Goal (E3026), 141-142 (H3), 293 Thrones, 243, 246 (H4), 289 Ticknor, George, 392, 397, 399 (H3), 290 Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 30, 31 *(H6), 288, 289 Tile Mosaics, 114 (H7, H8, H9), 288 (E332), 114 *Manga (H3941), 287, 288 Tile Panels (EI310, E1311), 127-128 *Orphreys (H3924, H3926), 287 Tile Shields (El 223, El224), 126 Panel (H3943), 281 Tiles Hispano-Moresque, 273-17S (E303, E306), 114 *Gold and Silk Brocade (H904), 274, 273 (E710), 113 *Gold and Silk Brocade (H909), 273 (E711), 119 Silk (E714), 118, 119 (H918), 276 (E713), 118 (H919), 273-274 (E716), 118, 119 (H920, H921), 276 (E717), 118 Indo-Portuguese, 292-293 (E720), 119 Handkerchief (H984), 293 (E722), 118, 119 *Palace Porhere (H972), 293 (E726, E727, E728, E729), 119 Machine-made, 293 (E1043), 143 Mudejar, 278-279 (El 207), 137 Silks (El 218), 123-126 *(H932), 278 (E1316,E1317, E1318), 130 (H983, H986), 278, 279 (El 319), 138 Printed, 293, 323 (El329, El 330), 133 Spanish (El 333, El336, El 337, El338), 136 Brocatel (H969-H971), 289 Tinaja, Pottery (E738), 113, 116 Chair Cover (HI023), 289 La Tirana see Fernández, María del Rosario Damask (H910), 292 Tirant lo Blanch, 188, 381,393 Gold and Silk Brocades *(Haebler 639), 398-399 (H901,H903), 292 *(Haebler 640), 399-400 *(H931), 279 Tiraz, T73 Gold and Velvet Brocades Titian, 12,16,17, 18, 82, 339 (H913, H913), 289 Pension for, 337 *(H917), 281 Titulcia. Church, 13 (H949), 282 Tobar, Alonso Miguel, 26 *(H961), 289, 290 Toledo, 176 (H964), 289 Alcántara bridge, 41 Panels (H907, H966, H968), 281 Alcázar, 46 Satin Velvets Carpenters of, 64 (H906, *H933, H962), 280 Cathedral, 14, 13, 69, 77, 79, 192, 203, 231, Silk Brocades 246 (H930, H930), 294 Church of San José, 14 439 HANDBOOK Toledo (continued) Trincher, Pedro, 401 Church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo, 12 Tristán, Luis, 15 Convent of San Miguel de los Angeles, 79 Troubetzkoy, Paul, 99 Convent of San Pedro Mártir, 232, 382 *rru//a;(R3035-R3036), 173-174 Convent of Santa Isabel de los Reyes, 278 Tudor work see Embroidery, High-relief Mudejar wood-carving, 63-65 Tumblers, Glass Museo Arqueológico, 79 *(T427), 165 Museo del Greco, 28 (T501), 167 Pottery industry of, 112-113, 116, 133, 143, Turia river, 50 146 Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 38 Sculpture at, 73, 75 Turners, 243 Toledo (A824), 52 Turning, 259, 261, 262 Tombs Tusceres y Vilés, José, 210 Garcia Osorio, 75-76 Types, Printing, 366, 371-372, 395 *Gutierre de la Cueva, hp. of Palència (D274), 77-78 Ubeda Juan de Aragón (D286), 71-72 (Jaén) Church of el 87 *Mencía Enríquez de Toledo, duchess of Al- Salvador, hurquerque (D275), 77-78, 79 Pottery from, 147 Tomich, Pere. Histories (Haebler 641), 400-401 Udobro, Diego de, 229 Torchon laces. Exportation of, 311 Umbrian school, 10 Torquemada, Printer of the, 383 Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de. Portrait (Al 950), Torre, Alfonso de la. Vision (Haebler 644), 401 47 Torre Farfán, Fernando de la. Fiestas de la S. Ungut, Meynardo, 384, 385, 397, 398 Iglesia...de Sevilla, 328 Urgel. Cathedral, 206 Torre Pallaresa. Portrait medallions, 82 Urgel, Count of. Tomb, 71 Torrejón, Father Andrés de, 129 Urrabieta, Vicente, 326, 349 Torrigiani, Pietro, 89 Urrabieta Vierge, Daniel, 39-40, 53, 337-338, 349 Torrijos, José María de, 37 Tortosa Urraca, queen of Castilla, Asturias, and León, 181 402 Cathedral, 187 Urríes, Hugo de, Colegio de San Luis, 82 Urrutia, General. Portrait, 33 Tostado de Madrigal, Alfonso, bp. of Avila Ursula, Saint, 86 Floretum (Haebler 388), 401 Tomb, 77 Valdemaqueda (Madrid), Glass industry of, 162 Totonicus, Andreas, 361 Valdés, Fernando de, 397 Toulouse Valdés, Lucas, 203 Cathedral of Saint-Etienne, 66 Valdés, Lucas de, 328 Church of Saint-Sernin, 66 Valdés Leal, Juan de, 26, 27, 90, 203, 328, 329 Printing at, 385, 388,401 Valencia Trajan, 60 Cathedral, 4, 10, 11,30, 229 Trapani, Madonna of, 82-83 Church of San Juan del Hospital, 5 Traveling in the Alpujarra, Lanjarón (A3024), Church of San Martin, 225 51 Diputación, Palacio de la, 133 *Treasure Chest (R186), 228, 229 Generalidad see Diputación Treinta y tres estampas que representan diferentes Glass industry of, 159 suertes y actitudes del arte de lidiar los toros see Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes, 96, 184 La Tauromaquia 45 Trejo y Paniagua, Gabriel de, cardinal, 89 *Ka/enda(A1805), Valencia de Don Juan, Count of, 226 Trezzo, Jacopo da, 198 Valencian school, 5 Triana (Sevilla) 126 Valera, Diego de. La crónica (Haebler 660), 401- Church of Santa Ana, 402 Pottery from, 257 Tractada, 397 Tríanos. Retablo, 83 Valerio máximo (Haebler 663), 402 INDEX Vall d'Arán, Sculpture in churches of, 67 Velilla de Ebro, Coat of arms of, 72 Valladolid Velvet weaving Colegio de San Gregorio, 225 Escorial. Monastery, 282 Convent, 30 Toledo, 281 Monastery of the Santísima Trinidad, 231 Utrecht, 282 Museo Provincial de Bellas Arles, 86 Velvets, 279-280 School of, 83, 84, 88 Veneer, 260-261 Valls, Domingo, 4 Venetian influence, 158, 159, 161-162 Valverde de la Sierra, Marquis of, 163 Venetian school, 12, 16 Van der Weyden, Roger, 8 Venice, Glass from, 155, 158, 161 Van Eyck, Jan, 5 Ventosa, Enrique Luis, 146 Van Gelder Collection, Uccle, Belgium, 29 Veragua, Duke of, 44 Vargas, Luis de, 12 Verardus, Carolus. In laudem. (Church 8), 380 Vargueño Lockplate (RI 29), 234 Vergara family, 30 Vargueños, 81, 234, 249, 232-257, 260, 363 Vergós, Jaume, 6 *(S42), 253, 254 Vergós, Pau, 6 (S45), 257 Vergós, Rafel, 6 *(S47), 252, 254 Vergós family, 6 (S48), 250, 253 Verus, Lucius Aurelius, Supposed Portrait of *(S74), 255, 257 (D205), 60 (S76),251,253 Vespucci, Juan, 319 *(S77), 254, 256-257 *Via Crucis (A59), 27 Vase Fragment, Pottery Vial, Glass (T154), 154 *(E734), 113-114 Viana, Carlos de Aragón, prince of, 327 Vase Neck, Pottery Vicente, Gil, 207 *(E576), 113-114 Vich Vases Cathedral, 183 Glass Museu Episcopal, 160, 181, 282 *(T351), 156, 157 *The Victim of the Fiesta (A2010), 46-47 (T367), 162-163 *Victims of War (Al 17), 36 (T430, T443, T444), 165 Victoria and Albert Museum see London (T503), 166 Victoria Eugenia, consort of Alfonso XIII, h.ing Porcelain of Spain, 144 (E3007. E3022, E3023), 142 Portrait (A54), 44 Pottery Vidal, Ramón, 221 *(E371), 109,110 Viejo Torero see El Embozado (E504), 115 Vierge see Urrabieta *(E680,E681). 121 View of the Guadarrama Mountains (A299), 41 (E990,E991),135 Vigarny, Felipe, 76-77, 79, 83 (El 059), 146 Vigliarolo, Domenico, 317 Roman (R4421), 174 Vignaud, Henry, 397 Vázquez, Juan, 396 Portrait (A39), 40 Vázquez, Juan Bautista, the Younger, 89 Vila, Jaime de, 377, 378, 384 Vázquez, Rodrigo, 37 Viladrich, Ana Morera de. Portrait (A 1996), 51 Vázquez Úbeda, Carlos, 42 Viladrich Vilá, Miguel, 51-52 Vega, Francisco Preciado de la, 30 Portrait (A1863), 51-52 Vega Carpió, Lope Félix de, 17 Vilas, Juan. Portrait (A1861), 52 Vega Inclán, Benigno de la Vega Inclán y Villa-amil y Castro, José, 379 Flaquer, marquis of. Portrait Bust (D987), 96 Villabrille y Ron, Juan Alonso, 90 Velarde, Pedro, 340 Villalcázar de Sirga (Palència). Parish Church, Velasco Aguirre, Miguel, 332 275 Velázquez, Diego Rodríguez de Silva y, 18, 21, Villalobos, Francisco López de. El sumario 23-24, 25, 26, 46, 52, 88,147, 200, 328 (Haebler 687), 402 Etchings after, 330, 331, 342 Villalpando, Francisco de, 230-231 HANDBOOK Villanueva de Alcorón (Guadalajara), Glass in- Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, marquis of Tenerife. dustry of, 163 Portrait (A2117), 49 Villaricos (Almería), Excavations at, 214 Wild Boar Group (D356), 100 Villasirga, Church of see Villalcázar de Sirga Window Fragment, Glass (T360), 154-155 (Palència) Women of Avila (Al 952), 50 Villegas y Cordero, José, 349 Wood carvers, 366, 378, 379, 390, 391 Villena, Marchioness of, 161 Wood engravings, 324, 326 Vinci, Leonardo da, 10,11 Wood-carvings, Mudejar, 64-65 Vindel, Pedro, hijo, 331 Woodcuts, 323-324, 325, 370,372, 377, 378, 379, Vintagers in Spain (A551-A552, A554), 39 380,382,383, 386,388,389,390-391,393-394, Virgin and Child, Panels from a retablo of the 397, 399, 400, 402 (Al), 8-9 Woolen cloths. Exportation of, 273 Virgin and Child, Statues of the, 65, 67-71, 75, Worl^shop in the Tobacco Factory, Sevilla (A2037), 82-83, 86, 92, 95 42 *Alabaster Statue (D280), 71 The Wounded Bull (D984), 96, 97 Alabaster Statuettes (D283, D284), 82-83 Ivory Statuettes Ximénez, Miguel, 7 (D753), 94, 95 Xylographs see Woodcuts (D754), 65 Marble Statuette (D282), 82-83 Yánez de la Almedina, Hernando, 10-11 Wooden Statuettes Young Galician Girl (A2038), 49 (A5), 69 (DIG), 92 Zabaleta, Juan de. El día de fiesta, 255-256 (D22), 67, 69 Zacuthus, Abraham. Almanach (Haebler 720), (D34), 75 402 (D35), 70 Zagala, Juan, 230 (D61), 86 Zalman or Zalmati see Maimón Zalmati, Salo- (D79), 69-70 mon ben *The Virgin and Child Enthroned (A2139), 5-6 Zamora The Virgin Mary (D751), 95 Cathedral, 222, 226 The Virgin with the Crystal Dish (A70), 15 Church of San Cebrián, 216 *Virgin with the Distaff (A80), 11 Church of Santiago del Burgo, 216 Visconte, Giovanni Antonio de, 317 Ivory box from, 61 Visigothicperiod, 61, 111, 154, 175-178 Printing at, 391 Visigoths, Jewel work of the, 180 Retablo (A4), 10 The Visitation, Retablo of (A17), 7 Zapata, Gómez, bp. of Cuenca, 194 Vitoria. Cathedral, 28 Zaragoza The Vivarini, 6 Capital of a monumental cross from, 72 Vives, Juan Luis, 380 Cathedral of la Seo, 74, 187 Vives Escudero, Antonio. Collection, 59, 60, Cathedral of Nuestra Señora del Pilar, 31, 90 y 213,214 Church of San Pablo, 196 Vizlant, Jacob, 389 Mark of, 199 Volarts, Factory of, 310 Monastery of the Santo Sepulcro, 3 Volcius, Vincentius Demetrei, 317 Palace of the counts of Sobradiel, 31 Vorsterman, Willem, 299 University, 96 Votive Offerings, Pre-Roman (D994, D995), 58 Zaragoza. Constitutiones (Haebler 165), 403 Vulture Group (P358), 100 Zarza, Ensebio, 326, 349 Zarza, Vasco de la, 77 Wagner, Zorrilla Moral, José. Illustrations for El escul- Peter, 390 y tor y el duque, by Daniel Urrabieta Vierge War of Independence, 34, 194, 332, 340 (A766-A767), 40 Watermarks, 376, 395 Zubiaurre y Aguirrezabal, Ramón de. Portrait Watteau, Jean Antoine, 141 (A2134), 50 Weiss, Rosario, 349-350 Zubiaurre y Aguirrezabal, Valentín de. Portrait Wenssler, Michael, 368 (A2135), 50 INDEX Zuloaga, Daniel, 143-144 *Zúñiga, Elvira de. Effigy of (D3I7), 85-86 Zuloaga y Zanora, Ignacio, 46-48, 'b'hl Zurbarán, Francisco de, 18, 20-21, 25, 147, 259 Portrait (A35), 47 Zurita, Gerónimo de. Anales de Aragón, 317 The location of ari objects in Spain is given in the text as previous to the year 1936. V '7 ^ W í'- « •• '•.T-l-fVtíCTK yM S- - • lú i^rK. % ^ ^ >'^1' f'*'*^ V i?^ í -h^ ~ iít 'J-Vi sfe-iû V it»% Wï V ' üt. <■ ■» >; v'K' V «y^iVt-* h ^'î'^r í* C ^ " 4 > ^ í'ííítvjít^i. V r j • '>"í S*í-*''isí ^ ^ i 1.^ vs/' ?f^í*í " ''- J - V » X „ £ í ^ VXsiS'^Sti ' ^ ^ í->< íTiS- -^i-ï. ,í-' "" w-írtí ». tj-T f--' . ííp<í>^.' »■ ^ , i, ''f¿''«-í,4f \/ 'lí'Si^Ht.'· BuÑo Santiago de Compostelâ •villalcízaw DE Sirga Ç Burgos oe Nogales Naval Ampurias Palència Breda Valladolid Zamora Montserrat Cervera. ★. Arenys de Mar Fraga Portillo Oporto .San Cugat Barcelona Cuéllar Muel .Velilla de Ebro Daroca Híjar Tarragona Salamanca Recuenca "•—"f Alcalá 1^* de**: /El Escorial Henares I * Teruel J Madrid* ♦ Cadalso de los Vidrios Cuenca Alcora Coria Talavera de la Reina Toledo Lagartera ocaña El Puente del Arzobispo Paterna Lluch mayor Alarcón * Felanitx Valencia Lisboa Bonete Almagro Alcaraz Villafranca de los Barros SANTOS u6c0a córdoba Castril * de la . Pena.'* maría Carmona Baena .Cartagena Huelva Sevilla Osuna Granada Morón de la^/rontera SPAIN AND PORTUGAL ♦ jerez de la Frontera * ♦ * * * |ÂlmerW Puerto oe ; Málaga cádiz Santa María' provenance of the society's objects mentioned in the text Espanya - General. MCB 643 HISPANIC SOCIETY GLASS etched with birds and foliage twined around strapwork and medallions fram- all the characteristics of objects made during the last quarter of the eighteenth ing a battle scene and a bullfight. century. The glass is brilliant, crystal clear, occasionally marred by tiny im- Great damage had been done to the factory by two fires, so that, when Charles perfections of unfused substances. The cutting is shallow and gilded. Of the the Third came to the throne, he had a well-equipped building erected outside popular sugar bowls or confectionary jars, there are two in the collection (T426, the walls of the village. A determined spirit to make the products of La Granja T445). Both are cylindrical with two handles; they better than French, German, and Ejiglish importations prevailed in the new stand on circular bases and have covers topped by knob manufactory. This ideal, upheld by King Charles and his successors, could handles. Around the body of Jar T426, gilt stars sparkle best be attained, they believed, by the appointment of a predominating num- from enframing festoons of ribbons, flowers, and foliage. her of foreign masters and artists. Already, the Swedish Eder and his son and the Sprays of gilt leaves and berries are engraved on the lid Frenchman Sivert had charge of producing glass in the German and French of the bowl. On opposite sides of Jar T445 are cut two manners. To the roll of foreigners were added John Dowling, an Englishman golden flowers with their foliage. The cover of the jar, who invented an hydraulic polishing machine, and Sigismund Brun, a German rising sharply to a cone, is cut with long sprigs of berries who claimed to have discovered the secret of fired gilding on glass. A branch and fine leaves. A similar floral pattern and scattered workshop was opened at Madrid where several manufacturing processes were leaf sprays decorate a bottle-shaped decanter (T428); carried leaves ornament the flat sides of its circular on, and buildings were purchased for storage warehouses. golden As a result of the influx of foreign influence. La Granja glass reëchoes the stopper of moulded glass. The upper portion of a large styles of Germany—especially Bohemia—England, and France. Shaped like tumbler (T427) is bedecked with flowers and leaves those from the British Isles are decanters and small wine glasses, their stems de- twisted around ribbon swags which are looped up with signed with bubbles, air and colour twists, and faceting. The processes of cutting, bowknots to a wreath of laurel leaves. From the thick engraving, and gilding were Germany's important contributions to La Granja base regular flutes extend up the sides of the tumbler. glass manufacture. Large, deeply cut designs cover the entire surfaces of objects The of another DECANTER body drinking vessel, a mug, is dia- which they adorn. Contemporary scenes or allegories are subjects in which the La Granja de San Ildefonso pered with a pattern of delicate trefoils growing erect human figure predominates, while scrolled strapwork and cartouches, com- Eighteenth century from clusters of leaves. Three covered vases complete bined with animal and foliage designs, offer additional ornamentation. France the group of La Granja glasses in the Hispanic Museum. They are all of about collars, loop tive is found d of etched SUGAR BOWL 3LER La Granja de San Ildefonso I San Ildefonso Eighteenth century Ih century ting, engraving on glass losi The eight pieces of La ' îre made by